3. 定義時應(yīng)按照所定義的對象的詞性來組織口頭語言：定義名詞用另一名詞或名詞短語;定義動詞用另一動詞并且兩者都以不定式(to)開頭;定義形容詞用另一形容詞或短語;定義副詞用另一副詞或短語。例如：(名詞)A physician is a person who is skilled in the art of healing. (動詞)To demonstrate is to show by reasoning or proof. (形容詞)Healthy means being in a state of health or enjoying health. (副詞)Cowardly means in the manner of a coward.

4. 定義應(yīng)當(dāng)完整、簡明、易懂。

定義時應(yīng)避免重復(fù)使用同一個詞，以免造成同義反復(fù)。

例如：(錯) To approve is the act of approving something.

(對) To approve is to confirm formally.

定義時避免用when, where, what等引導(dǎo)的短語。

例如：(錯) Illness is when you are sick.

(對) Illness is a state of disordered health.

(錯) A bed is where you sleep.

(對) A bed is a piece of furniture to sleep or take rest in or on.

(本文選自遼寧教育出版社于2003年1月出版的《王強口語》系列叢書第一冊。)

——如何用英文清晰準(zhǔn)確地進行描述

1. 我這里所說的“描述”是廣義的：既涉及到“描”(describe)也涉及到“述”(narrate)，同時也涉及到描述的目的--傳達意義(meaning)，也就是所謂的闡釋(illustrate)。

2. “描”(description)是向人靜態(tài)地展現(xiàn)外界留給你的印象;“述”(narration)是向人動態(tài)地展現(xiàn)事情的發(fā)展及過程;“闡釋”(illustration)則是通過具體的例子揭示事物或抽象觀念的意義(meaning)。

3. 英語學(xué)習(xí)者在用英文進行上述意義的“描述”時，常常受到母語思維方式的影響，難以有效地組織描述，或者描述出來之后令英美人不得要領(lǐng)。問題出在漢語思維方式傾向于強調(diào)普遍的東西而英語思維方式則傾向于具體的東西;漢語思維方式傾向于不分重點地羅列而英語思維方式則傾向于依照意義的重要性來進行人為地組織或加工。

4. “細節(jié)性思維”+“清晰的邏輯結(jié)構(gòu)”是掌握英語描述的關(guān)鍵。所謂“細節(jié)性思維”指的是每當(dāng)你要表達的時候，要求自己引用具體的東西來支撐你的表達或使你的表達具體化、清晰化，這也就是英文中總強調(diào)的突出“要點”(point)的意思。泛泛而談而沒有具體細節(jié)支撐，對方則看不到(see)你的要點(point)，自然也就不會明白你的意思。所謂“清晰的邏輯結(jié)構(gòu)”指的是英美人所習(xí)慣的組織他們描述的框架，這一框架基本上由三個部分構(gòu)成：

A 導(dǎo)引(the lead)

B 事件的流程(the flow of events)

C 收尾(the end)。

5. “導(dǎo)引”是描述的第一步。在導(dǎo)引里，你可以展示一個問題(set out a problem)、引入一個新的情況(introduce a novel situation)、提出某種挑戰(zhàn)(pose a challenge)、拋出一個令人吃驚的東西(pop a surprise)、問一個問題(ask a question)或者提及你的最初印象(initial impression)。導(dǎo)引只是提供必要的而不是全部的背景，不可鋪墊過長，一定要選擇有代表性的時刻切入;“事件的流程”在描述中起著最重要的作用，因為所有相關(guān)的事件都在這一步按照一定的方式被組織成有意義的、有序的主干(logical sgroupsof events);“收尾"是完成描述的最后一步，收尾的時候一定要回應(yīng)“導(dǎo)引”，解決了這個問題(resolve the problem)、展示了新情況要么向好要么向壞的變化(show the change of situation for better or worse)、成功或失敗地回應(yīng)了挑戰(zhàn)(succeed or fail in responding to the challenge)、解釋了令人吃驚的東西(make the surprise understood)、回答了問題(answer the question)、進一步印證或推翻了你的最初印象(prove or fail to prove your initial impression)。

6. 在用英文進行描述時，初學(xué)者應(yīng)牢記兩點：A 漢語思維中描述一系列事件習(xí)慣采取的方式就是按照這些事件發(fā)生的先后順序一一展現(xiàn)。這樣一種方式對英美人來說十分枯燥無趣。英語思維方式往往打破這樣一種所謂的“自然時間序列”(natural sequencesgroupsin time)，按照講述者的主觀時間序列來一一展現(xiàn)。這一主觀序列的本質(zhì)在于，他們總是先把自認為最重要的東西說出來，然后說第二重要的、第三重要的……把最不重要的留在后面說。例如：描述你第一次去上海的經(jīng)歷。漢語思維往往是這樣的--先介紹上海的歷史、文化背景，然后抵達上海，上?，F(xiàn)代化的市容吸引了你，你見到了上海的熟人，熟人要你一定去看看外灘的夜景，你看到了外灘的美麗，最后你依依不舍地告別上海返回家鄉(xiāng)。英語思維多半會這樣組織--期刊里上海現(xiàn)代化的市容吸引了你，你抵達上海，你見到了上海的熟人，熟人要你一定去看看外灘的夜景，你研究并熟悉了外灘的歷史，你依依惜別地離開了上海，最令你難以忘懷的是你看到的外灘的美麗。B 講述時中國同學(xué)往往不知道說完一句該怎樣接著說下一句，以至生拼硬湊，想說什么說什么，讓自己跟著感覺走。其實英語思維中連接兩個句子的模式不外乎這樣幾種：a)句子A直接導(dǎo)向句子B(A leads to B.);b)句子B和句子A正好相反(B is the opposite of A.);c)句子A和句子B同屬一個相關(guān)的事件群(A and B both belong to the samesgroupsof related events.);d)事件A發(fā)生在事件B身上(A happens to B.);e)事件A之所以發(fā)生是因為事件B(A happens because of B.)。

7. 千萬不要在一個描述中試圖說太多的事情，學(xué)會只選擇一件事情來說(talk about only one thing)。另外，要保證你描述中的每一句話緊緊扣住主題(stick to your subject)，不要涉及毫不相關(guān)或關(guān)系不大的其他細節(jié)(focus on the one thing)。收尾要出人意料、引人入勝(make the end interesting)。

8. 下面我們仔細比較幾個具體例子來消化以上的論述。

例一：Can computers in the classroom ever replace teachers? (the lead)

——同意或反對意見

——舉出事實和數(shù)據(jù){logical flow}

——相互爭論觀點

"Sure, computers can help kids learn," Bob says, looking at the rows of blinking screens in his classroom, "but I'd take a good teacher without computers over a poor one with computers, every time." (the end)

例二：(1) 對一只寵物狗的兩種描述

Version A

We have a dog. Her name is Beauty. She is a bulldog (一種脖子粗，性兇猛的狗). She has a pretty face. She likes to catch rats.

評點：這一描述中出現(xiàn)的事件太多，不集中。Too many things about a pet dog!

Version B

One night when I was about to go to bed, my dog Bud gotsintosthe kitchen. He saw a box of cornstarch (淀粉) on the shelf. He jumped up and knocked it all over himself. In the morning when I saw Bud, he was as white as a ghost.評點：只圍繞一件事描述。Focus on one event. Stick to the subject.

(2) 描述一個星期六

Version A

Saturday I helped my mother clean house. Then I ran on some errands(跑腿辦事). When father came home at noon, he gave me ten bucks(美元). In the afternoon I went to a movie. The movie was terrible. I didn't enjoy it so much as the one I saw last Saturday. Next Saturday I am going again.

評點：描述乏味，事件太多，多數(shù)句子沒能緊扣主題，結(jié)尾無趣。Subject is not interesting. Not all the sentences stick to the subject. Too many things. The ending is boring.

Version B

Saturday my brother Tom said he would teach me to skate. So he let me take hold of a stick. Then he would pull me along. Once he let go of me. He thought it was fun to see me fall, but I didn't see the joke.

評點：題材有趣，所有的句子圍繞滑冰一件事來說，結(jié)尾出人意料。Interesting subject. Every sentence is talking about skating. The ending gives surprise.

(3) 描述放學(xué)回家的過程

Version A

Yesterday I went home from school. I saw many cars. I also saw some large trucks. I went home with my brother. We were very late when we made it home.評點：事與事之間無聯(lián)系，沒有統(tǒng)一的主題。

Version B

Yesterday noon I saw a girl who had trouble with her car. She stopped at a street crossing (路口). When the traffic cop signaled(給信號) to go, she couldn't start(起動). There was a long line of cars behind her. After a while she finally started her car. I think she was frightened to death.

評點：主題突出，句子緊湊，只圍繞一件事說，結(jié)尾有總結(jié)性觀點。