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劍橋雅思閱讀4原文(test3)

　　READING PASSAGE 1

　　You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

　　Micro-Enterprise Credit for Street Youth

　　‘I am from a large, poor family and for many years we have done without breakfast. Ever since I joined the Street Kids International program I have been able to buy my family sugar and buns for breakfast. I have also bought myself decent second-hand clothes and shoes.’

　　Doreen Soko

　　‘We’ve had business experience. Now I’m confident to expand what we’ve been doing. I’ve learnt cash management, and the way of keeping money so we save for re-investment. Now business is a part of our lives. As well, we didn’t know each other before — now we’ve made new friends.’

　　Fan Kaoma

　　Participants in the Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative Program, Zambia

　　Introduction

　　Although small-scale business training and credit programs have become more common throughout the world, relatively little attention has been paid to the need to direct such opportunities to young people. Even less attention has been paid to children living on the street or in difficult circumstances.

　　Over the past nine years, Street Kids International (S.K.I.) has been working with partner organisations in Africa, Latin America and India to support the economic lives of street children. The purpose of this paper is to share some of the lessons S.K.I. and our partners have learned.

　　Background

　　Typically, children do not end up on the streets due to a single cause, but to a combination of factors: a dearth of adequately funded schools, the demand for income at home, family breakdown and violence. The street may be attractive to children as a place to find adventurous play and money. However, it is also a place where some children are exposed, with little or no protection, to exploitative employment, urban crime, and abuse.

　　Children who work on the streets are generally involved in unskilled, labour-intensive tasks which require long hours, such as shining shoes, carrying goods, guarding or washing cars, and informal trading. Some may also earn income through begging, or through theft and other illegal activities. At the same time, there are street children who take pride in supporting themselves and their families and who often enjoy their work. Many children may choose entrepreneurship because it allows them a degree of independence, is less exploitative than many forms of paid employment, and is flexible enough to allow them to participate in other activities such as education and domestic tasks.

　　Street Business Partnerships

　　S.K.I. has worked with partner organisations in Latin America, Africa and India to develop innovative opportunities for street children to earn income.

　　? The S.K.I. Bicycle Courier Service first started in the Sudan. Participants in this enterprise were supplied with bicycles, which they used to deliver parcels and messages, and which they were required to pay for gradually from their wages. A similar program was taken up in Bangalore, India.

　　? Another successful project, The Shoe Shine Collective, was a partnership program with the Y.W.C.A. in the Dominican Republic. In this project, participants were lent money to purchase shoe shine boxes. They were also given a safe place to store their equipment, and facilities for individual savings plans.

　　? The Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative in Zambia is a joint program with the Red Cross Society and the Y.W.C.A. Street youths are supported to start their own small business through business training, life skills training and access to credit.

　　Lessons learned

　　The following lessons have emerged from the programs that S.K.I. and partner organisations have created.

　　? Being an entrepreneur is not for everyone, nor for every street child. Ideally, potential participants will have been involved in the organisation’s programs for at least six months, and trust and relationship-building will have already been established.

　　? The involvement of the participants has been essential to the development of relevant programs. When children have had a major role in determining procedures, they are more likely to abide by and enforce them.

　　? It is critical for all loans to be linked to training programs that include the development of basic business and life skills.

　　? There are tremendous advantages to involving parents or guardians in the program, where such relationships exist. Home visits allow staff the opportunity to know where the participants live, and to understand more about each individual’s situation.

　　? Small loans are provided initially for purchasing fixed assets such as bicycles, shoe shine kits and basic building materials for a market stall. As the entrepreneurs gain experience, the enterprises can be gradually expanded and consideration can be given to increasing loan amounts. The loan amounts in S.K.I. programs have generally ranged from US-0.

　　? All S.K.I. programs have charged interest on the loans, primarily to get the entrepreneurs used to the concept of paying interest on borrowed money. Generally the rates have been modest (lower than bank rates).

　　Conclusion

　　There is a need to recognise the importance of access to credit for impoverished young people seeking to fulfil economic needs. The provision of small loans to support the entrepreneurial dreams and ambitions of youth can be an effective means to help them change their lives. However, we believe that credit must be extended in association with other types of support that help participants develop critical life skills as well as productive businesses.

　　Questions 1-4

　　Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

　　Write your answers in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.

　　1 The quotations in the box at the beginning of the article

　　A exemplify the effects of S.K.I.

　　B explain why S.K.I. was set up.

　　C outline the problems of street children.

　　D highlight the benefits to society of S.K.I.

　　2 The main purpose of S.K.I. is to

　　A draw the attention of governments to the problem of street children.

　　B provide school and social support for street children.

　　C encourage the public to give money to street children.

　　D give business training and loans to street children.

　　3 Which of the following is mentioned by the writer as a reason why children end up living on the streets?

　　A unemployment

　　B war

　　C poverty

　　D crime

　　4 In order to become more independent, street children may

　　A reject paid employment.

　　B leave their families.

　　C set up their own businesses.

　　D employ other children.

　　Questions 5-8

　　Complete the table below.

　　Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 1 for each answer.

　　Write your answers in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet.

　　Country Organisations Involved Type of Project Support Provided

　　5………………

　　and………………

　　? S.K.I courier service ? provision of 6………………………

　　Dominican Republic ? S.K.I

　　? Y.W.C.A 7………………… ? loans

　　? storage facilities

　　? savings plans

　　Zambia ? S.K.I.

　　? The Red Cross

　　? Y.W.C.A. setting up small businesses ? business training

　　? 8…………training

　　? access to credit

　　Questions 9-12

　　Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 1?

　　In boxes 9-12 on your answer sheet write

　　YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the wirter

　　NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer

　　NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

　　9 Any street child can set up their own small business if given enough support.

　　10 In some cases, the families of street children may need financial support from S.K.I.

　　11 Only one fixed loan should be given to each child.

　　12 The children have to pay back slightly more money than they borrowed.

　　Question 13

　　Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

　　Write your answer in box 13 on your answer sheet.

　　The writers conclude that money should only be lent to street children

　　A as part of a wider program of aid.

　　B for programs that are not too ambitious.

　　C when programs are supported by local businesses.

　　D if the projects planned are realistic and useful.

　　READING PASSAGE 2

　　You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26 which are based on Reading Passage 2 on the following pages.

　　Questions 14-27

　　Reading Passage 2 has four sections A-D.

　　Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.

　　Write the correct number i-vi in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet.

　　List of Headings

　　I Causes of volcanic eruption

　　Ii Efforts to predict volcanic eruption

　　Iii Volcanoes and the features of our planet

　　Iv Different types of volcanic eruption

　　V International relief efforts

　　Vi The unpredictability of volcanic eruptions

　　14 Section A

　　15 Section B

　　16 Section C

　　17 Section D

　　Volcanoes-earth-shattering news

　　When Mount Pinatubo suddenly erupted on 9 June 1991, the power of volcanoes past and present again hit the headlines

　　A Volcanoes are the ultimate earth-moving machinery. A violent eruption can blow the top few kilometres off a mountain, scatter fine ash practically all over the globe and hurl rock fragments into the stratosphere to darken the skies a continent away.

　　But the classic eruption — cone-shaped mountain, big bang, mushroom cloud and surges of molten lava — is only a tiny part of a global story. Vulcanism, the name given to volcanic processes, really has shaped the world. Eruptions have rifted continents, raised mountain chains, constructed islands and shaped the topography of the earth. The entire ocean floor has a basement of volcanic basalt.

　　Volcanoes have not only made the continents, they are also thought to have made the world’s first stable atmosphere and provided all the water for the oceans, rivers and ice-caps. There are now about 600 active volcanoes. Every year they add two or three cubic kilometres of rock to the continents. Imagine a similar number of volcanoes smoking away for the last 3,500 million years. That is enough rock to explain the continental crust.

　　What comes out of volcanic craters is mostly gas. More than 90% of this gas is water vapour from the deep earth: enough to explain, over 3,500 million years, the water in the oceans. The rest of the gas is nitrogen, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, methane, ammonia and hydrogen. The quantity of these gases, again multiplied over 3,500 million years, is enough to explain the mass of the world’s atmosphere. We are alive because volcanoes provided the soil, air and water we need.

　　B Geologists consider the earth as having a molten core, surrounded by a semi-molten mantle and a brittle, outer skin. It helps to think of a soft-boiled egg with a runny yolk, a firm but squishy white and a hard shell. If the shell is even slightly cracked during boiling, the white material bubbles out and sets like a tiny mountain chain over the crack — like an archipelago of volcanic islands such as the Hawaiian Islands. But the earth is so much bigger and the mantle below is so much hotter.

　　Even though the mantle rocks are kept solid by overlying pressure, they can still slowly ‘flow’ like thick treacle. The flow, thought to be in the form of convection currents, is powerful enough to fracture the ‘eggshell’ of the crust into plates, and keep them bumping and grinding against each other, or even overlapping, at the rate of a few centimetres a year. These fracture zones, where the collisions occur, are where earthquakes happen. And, very often, volcanoes.

　　C These zones are lines of weakness, or hot spots. Every eruption is different, but put at its simplest, where there are weaknesses, rocks deep in the mantle, heated to 1,350℃, will start to expand and rise. As they do so, the pressure drops, and they expand and become liquid and rise more swiftly.

　　Sometimes it is slow: vast bubbles of magma — molten rock from the mantle — inch towards the surface, cooling slowly, to show through as granite extrusions (as on Skye, or the Great Whin Sill, the lava dyke squeezed out like toothpaste that carries part of Hadrian’s Wall in northern England). Sometimes — as in Northern Ireland, Wales and the Karoo in South Africa — the magma rose faster, and then flowed out horizontally on to the surface in vast thick sheets. In the Deccan plateau in western India, there are more than two million cubic kilometres of lava, some of it 2,400 metres thick, formed over 500,000 years of slurping eruption.

　　Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed. It does not have time to cool as it surges upwards. The gases trapped inside the boiling rock expand suddenly, the lava glows with heat, it begins to froth, and it explodes with tremendous force. Then the slightly cooler lava following it begins to flow over the lip of the crater. It happens on Mars, it happened on the moon, it even happens on some of the moons of Jupiter and Uranus. By studying the evidence, vulcanologists can read the force of the great blasts of the past. Is the pumice light and full of holes? The explosion was tremendous. Are the rocks heavy, with huge crystalline basalt shapes, like the Giant’s Causeway in Northern Ireland? It was a slow, gentle eruption.

　　The biggest eruptions are deep on the mid-ocean floor, where new lava is forcing the continents apart and widening the Atlantic by perhaps five centimetres a year. Look at maps of volcanoes, earthquakes and island chains like the Philippines and Japan, and you can see the rough outlines of what are called tectonic plates — the plates which make up the earth’s crust and mantle. The most dramatic of these is the Pacific ‘ring of fire’ where there have been the most violent explosions — Mount Pinatubo near Manila, Mount St Helen’s in the Rockies and El Chichón in Mexico about a decade ago, not to mention world-shaking blasts like Krakatoa in the Sunda Straits in 1883.

　　D But volcanoes are not very predictable. That is because geological time is not like human time. During quiet periods, volcanoes cap themselves with their own lava by forming a powerful cone from the molten rocks slopping over the rim of the crater; later the lava cools slowly into a huge, hard, stable plug which blocks any further eruption until the pressure below becomes irresistible. In the case of Mount Pinatubo, this took 600 years.

　　Then, sometimes, with only a small warning, the mountain blows its top. It did this at Mont Pelée in Martinique at 7.49 a.m. on 8 May, 1902. Of a town of 28,000, only two people survived. In 1815, a sudden blast removed the top 1,280 metres of Mount Tambora in Indonesia. The eruption was so fierce that dust thrown into the stratosphere darkened the skies, cancelling the following summer in Europe and North America. Thousands starved as the harvests failed, after snow in June and frosts in August. Volcanoes are potentially world news, especially the quiet ones.

　　Questions 18-21

　　Answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.

　　Write your answers in boxes 18-21 on your answer sheet.

　　18 What are the sections of the earth’s crust, often associated with volcanic activity, called?

　　19 What is the name given to molten rock from the mantle?

　　20 What is the earthquake zone on the Pacific Ocean called?

　　21 For how many years did Mount Pinatubo remain inactive?

　　Questions 22-26

　　Complete the summary below.

　　Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

　　Write your answers in boxes 22-26 on your answer sheet.

　　Volcanic eruptions have shaped the earth’s land surface. They may also have produced the world’s atmosphere and 22…… . Eruptions occur when molten rocks from the earth’s mantle rise and expand. When they become liquid, they move quickly through cracks in the surface. There are different types of eruption. Sometimes the 23……. moves slowly and forms outcrops of granite on the earth’s surface. When it moves more quickly it may flow out in thick horizontal sheets. Examples of this type of eruption can be found in Northern Ireland, Wales, South Africa and 24…… . A third type of eruption occurs when the lava emerges very quickly and 25…… violently. This happens because the magma moves so suddenly that 26…… are emitted.

　　READING PASSAGE 3

　　You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3 below

　　Obtaining Linguistic Data

　　A Many procedures are available for obtaining data about a language. They range from a carefully planned, intensive field investigation in a foreign country to a casual introspection about one’s mother tongue carried out in an armchair at home.

　　B In all cases, someone has to act as a source of language data — an informant. Informants are (ideally) native speakers of a language, who provide utterances for analysis and other kinds of information about the language (e.g. translations, comments about correctness, or judgements on usage). Often, when studying their mother tongue, linguists act as their own informants, judging the ambiguity, acceptability, or other properties of utterances against their own intuitions. The convenience of this approach makes it widely used, and it is considered the norm in the generative approach to linguistics. But a linguist’s personal judgements are often uncertain, or disagree with the judgements of other linguists, at which point recourse is needed to more objective methods of enquiry, using non-linguists as informants. The latter procedure is unavoidable when working on foreign languages, or child speech.

　　C Many factors must be considered when selecting informants — whether one is working with single speakers (a common situation when languages have not been described before), two people interacting, small groups or large-scale samples. Age, sex, social background and other aspects of identity are important, as these factors are known to influence the kind of language used. The topic of conversation and the characteristics of the social setting (e.g. the level of formality) are also highly relevant, as are the personal qualities of the informants (e.g. their fluency and consistency). For larger studies, scrupulous attention has been paid to the sampling theory employed, and in all cases, decisions have to be made about the best investigative techniques to use.

　　D Today, researchers often tape-record informants. This enables the linguist’s claims about the language to be checked, and provides a way of making those claims more accurate (‘difficult’ pieces of speech can be listened to repeatedly). But obtaining naturalistic, good-quality data is never easy. People talk abnormally when they know they are being recorded, and sound quality can be poor. A variety of tape-recording procedures have thus been devised to minimise the ‘observer’s paradox’ (how to observe the way people behave when they are not being observed). Some recordings are made without the speakers being aware of the fact — a procedure that obtains very natural data, though ethical objections must be anticipated. Alternatively, attempts can be made to make the speaker forget about the recording, such as keeping the tape recorder out of sight, or using radio microphones. A useful technique is to introduce a topic that quickly involves the speaker, and stimulates a natural language style (e.g. asking older informants about how times have changed in their locality).

　　E An audio tape recording does not solve all the linguist’s problems, however. Speech is often unclear and ambiguous. Where possible, therefore, the recording has to be supplemented by the observer’s written comments on the non-verbal behaviour of the participants, and about the context in general. A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of what is said. Video recordings avoid these problems to a large extent, but even they have limitations (the camera cannot be everywhere), and transcriptions always benefit from any additional commentary provided by an observer.

　　F Linguists also make great use of structured sessions, in which they systematically ask their informants for utterances that describe certain actions, objects or behaviours. With a bilingual informant, or through use of an interpreter, it is possible to use translation techniques (‘How do you say table in your language?’). A large number of points can be covered in a short time, using interview worksheets and questionnaires. Often, the researcher wishes to obtain information about just a single variable, in which case a restricted set of questions may be used: a particular feature of pronunciation, for example, can be elicited by asking the informant to say a restricted set of words. There are also several direct methods of elicitation, such as asking informants to fill in the blanks in a substitution frame (e.g. I___ see a car), or feeding them the wrong stimulus for correction (‘Is it possible to say I no can see?’).

　　G A representative sample of language, compiled for the purpose of linguistic analysis, is known as a corpus. A corpus enables the linguist to make unbiased statements about frequency of usage, and it provides accessible data for the use of different researchers. Its range and size are variable. Some corpora attempt to cover the language as a whole, taking extracts from many kinds of text; others are extremely selective, providing a collection of material that deals only with a particular linguistic feature. The size of the corpus depends on practical factors, such as the time available to collect, process and store the data: it can take up to several hours to provide an accurate transcription of a few minutes of speech. Sometimes a small sample of data will be enough to decide a linguistic hypothesis; by contrast, corpora in major research projects can total millions of words. An important principle is that all corpora, whatever their size, are inevitably limited in their coverage, and always need to be supplemented by data derived from the intuitions of native speakers of the language, through either introspection or experimentation.

　　Questions 27-31

　　Reading Passage 3 has seven paragraphs labeled A-G.

　　Which paragraph contains the following information?

　　Write the correct letter A-G in boxes 27-31 on your answer sheet.

　　NB You may use any letter more than once.

　　27 the effect of recording on the way people talk

　　28 the importance of taking notes on body language

　　29 the fact that language is influenced by social situation

　　30 how informants can be helped to be less self-conscious

　　31 various methods that can be used to generate specific data

　　Questions 32-36

　　Complete the table below.

　　Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.

　　Write your answers in boxes 32-36 on your answer sheet.

　　METHODS OF OBTAINING LINGUISTIC DATA ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

　　32……as informant convenient method of enquiry not objective enough

　　Non-linguist as informant necessary with 33…… and child speech the number of factors to be considered

　　Recording an informant allows linguists’ claims to be checked 34……of sound

　　Videoing an informant allows speakers’ 35…… to be observed 36……might miss certain things

　　Questions 37-40

　　Complete the summary of paragraph G below.

　　Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.

　　Write your answers in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.

　　A linguist can use a corpus to comment objectively on 37…… . Some corpora include a wide range of language while others are used to focus on a 38…… . The length of time the process takes will affect the 39…… of the corpus. No corpus can ever cover the whole language and so linguists often find themselves relying on the additional information that can be gained from the 40…… of those who speak the language concerned.

　　劍橋雅思閱讀4原文參考譯文(test3)

　　Passage1

　　參考譯文

　　Micro-Enterprise Credit for Street Youth

　　流浪兒童的小型企業(yè)貸款

　　‘I am from a large, poor family and for many years we have done without breakfast. Ever since I joined the Street Kids International program I have been able to buy my family sugar and buns for breakfast. I have also bought myself decent second-hand clothes and shoes.’

　　Doreen Soko

　　“我來(lái)自一個(gè)貧困的大家庭。我們已經(jīng)很多年沒(méi)吃過(guò)早餐了。自從加人了國(guó)際流浪兒童組織，早飯我們就吃得起糖和面包了。我還給自己買了體面的二手服裝和二手鞋子?！?/p>

　　DOREEN SOKO

　　‘We’ve had business experience. Now I’m confident to expand what we’ve been doing. I’ve learnt cash management, and the way of keeping money so we save for re-investment. Now business is a part of our lives. As well, we didn’t know each other before — now we’ve made new friends.’

　　Fan Kaoma

　　“我們有經(jīng)商的經(jīng)驗(yàn)。現(xiàn)在我非常有信心擴(kuò)大我的生意。我學(xué)過(guò)現(xiàn)金管理以及節(jié)省開(kāi)支的方法，所以現(xiàn)在存了些錢進(jìn)行再投資。生意已經(jīng)成了我生活的一部分。還有，以前我們素不相識(shí)——現(xiàn)在，我們已經(jīng)交到了很多新朋友?！?/p>

　　FAN KAOMA

　　Participants in the Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative Program, Zambia

　　贊比亞青年創(chuàng)業(yè)計(jì)劃的參與人

　　Introduction

　　Although small-scale business training and credit programs have become more common throughout the world, relatively little attention has been paid to the need to direct such opportunities to young people. Even less attention has been paid to children living on the street or in difficult circumstances.

　　簡(jiǎn)介

　　盡管在世界范圍內(nèi)，小型企業(yè)培訓(xùn)及貸款計(jì)劃已經(jīng)越來(lái)越普遍，然而相對(duì)而言，很少有人注意到年輕人也需要獲得這樣的機(jī)會(huì)。更少的人會(huì)去留意那些無(wú)家可歸或家境貧困的孩子。

　　Over the past nine years, Street Kids International (S.K.I.) has been working with partner organisations in Africa, Latin America and India to support the economic lives of street children. The purpose of this paper is to share some of the lessons S.K.I. and our partners have learned.

　　在過(guò)去的九年里，國(guó)際流浪兒童組織已經(jīng)與非洲、拉丁美洲以及印度的伙伴組織進(jìn)行合作，來(lái)改善流浪兒童的經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況。此文的目的主要是為了和大家分享一下他們所總結(jié)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)教訓(xùn)。

　　Background

　　Typically, children do not end up on the streets due to a single cause, but to a combination of factors: a dearth of adequately funded schools, the demand for income at home, family breakdown and violence. The street may be attractive to children as a place to find adventurous play and money. However, it is also a place where some children are exposed, with little or no protection, to exploitative employment, urban crime, and abuse.

　　背景

　　通常來(lái)講，兒童流離失所并非由某個(gè)原因造成，而是若干因素綜合所致：比如缺乏擁有足夠資金的學(xué)校，家里等著用錢，父母離異以及家庭暴力等。對(duì)于孩子來(lái)講，街道可能是個(gè)令人著迷的地方，充滿了冒險(xiǎn)游戲和賺錢機(jī)會(huì)。然而，由于缺乏或根本沒(méi)有保護(hù)，有些孩子在那里遭到剝削，遭遇暴力事件甚至虐待。

　　Children who work on the streets are generally involved in unskilled, labour-intensive tasks which require long hours, such as shining shoes, carrying goods, guarding or washing cars, and informal trading. Some may also earn income through begging, or through theft and other illegal activities. At the same time, there are street children who take pride in supporting themselves and their families and who often enjoy their work. Many children may choose entrepreneurship because it allows them a degree of independence, is less exploitative than many forms of paid employment, and is flexible enough to allow them to participate in other activities such as education and domestic tasks.

　　在街頭工作的孩子們通常都是從事一些無(wú)需技術(shù)但工作時(shí)間超長(zhǎng)的勞動(dòng)力密集型工作，比如擦鞋，搬運(yùn)貨物、門童或冼車，以及不正規(guī)交易。有些孩子甚至通過(guò)乞討或干盜竊等非法勾當(dāng)來(lái)賺錢。同時(shí)，也有些流浪兒童以能夠養(yǎng)活自己和家人而自豪，而且他們很喜歡所做的工作。許多孩子會(huì)選擇做生意是因?yàn)槟强梢允顾麄兿鄬?duì)獨(dú)立一些，而且做生意也比做其他許多有償工作要少受一些壓榨;生意的靈活性還使他們有時(shí)間去參與其他活動(dòng)，比如上學(xué)或是做家務(wù)。

　　Street Business Partnerships

　　流浪兒童就業(yè)互助計(jì)劃

　　S.K.I. has worked with partner organisations in Latin America, Africa and India to develop innovative opportunities for street children to earn income.

　　國(guó)際流浪兒童組織與拉丁美洲、非洲及印度的伙伴組織合作，開(kāi)發(fā)了讓流浪兒童賺錢的新機(jī)會(huì)。

　　? The S.K.I. Bicycle Courier Service first started in the Sudan. Participants in this enterprise were supplied with bicycles, which they used to deliver parcels and messages, and which they were required to pay for gradually from their wages. A similar program was taken up in Bangalore, India.

　　?國(guó)際流浪兒童組織速遞服務(wù)首先在蘇丹展開(kāi)。這項(xiàng)計(jì)劃為參與者提供自行車用以遞送包裹或信件，買自行車的錢會(huì)從參與者的工資中一點(diǎn)一點(diǎn)扣除。在印度的班加羅爾，一項(xiàng)類似的計(jì)劃也已經(jīng)展開(kāi)。

　　? Another successful project, The Shoe Shine Collective, was a partnership program with the Y.W.C.A. in the Dominican Republic. In this project, participants were lent money to purchase shoe shine boxes. They were also given a safe place to store their equipment, and facilities for individual savings plans.

　　?在多米尼加共和國(guó)，一項(xiàng)與__女青年會(huì)合作，名為擦鞋合作社的計(jì)劃也已經(jīng)成功展開(kāi)。這項(xiàng)計(jì)劃借錢給參與者購(gòu)買擦鞋箱，還給他們提供一個(gè)安全的地方來(lái)放置擦鞋工具，同時(shí)還提供了供他們存錢的設(shè)備。

　　? The Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative in Zambia is a joint program with the Red Cross Society and the Y.W.C.A. Street youths are supported to start their own small business through business training, life skills training and access to credit.

　　?贊比亞的青年創(chuàng)業(yè)計(jì)劃是與紅十字協(xié)會(huì)以及__女青年會(huì)合辦的項(xiàng)自。通過(guò)商務(wù)培訓(xùn)、生存技能訓(xùn)練以及提供貸款機(jī)會(huì)等方式，該項(xiàng)目的參與者得以開(kāi)辦自己的小生意。

　　Lessons learned

　　The following lessons have emerged from the programs that S.K.I. and partner organisations have created.

　　經(jīng)驗(yàn)教訓(xùn)

　　在國(guó)際流浪兒童組織的計(jì)劃實(shí)施過(guò)程中，出現(xiàn)了下列教訓(xùn)：

　　? Being an entrepreneur is not for everyone, nor for every street child. Ideally, potential participants will have been involved in the organisation’s programs for at least six months, and trust and relationship-building will have already been established.

　　?不是每個(gè)人都是做生意的料，流浪兒童也一樣。理想狀態(tài)下，孩子們至少應(yīng)該參與計(jì)劃六個(gè)月以上，這樣雙方之間可以建立起信任關(guān)系。

　　? The involvement of the participants has been essential to the development of relevant programs. When children have had a major role in determining procedures, they are more likely to abide by and enforce them.

　　?參與者的投入對(duì)于建立相關(guān)計(jì)劃十分重要。如果孩子們?cè)谥贫ㄒ?guī)程過(guò)程中起到關(guān)鍵作用，他們就更可能去遵守并執(zhí)行這些規(guī)定。

　　? It is critical for all loans to be linked to training programs that include the development of basic business and life skills.

　　?關(guān)鍵是所有的貸款都要與培訓(xùn)計(jì)劃眹系起來(lái)，培訓(xùn)計(jì)劃應(yīng)該包括基本商業(yè)技能及生存技能的開(kāi)發(fā)。

　　? There are tremendous advantages to involving parents or guardians in the program, where such relationships exist. Home visits allow staff the opportunity to know where the participants live, and to understand more about each individual’s situation.

　　?如果條件允許的話，容許家長(zhǎng)或監(jiān)護(hù)人參與計(jì)劃是十分有好處的。家訪使工作人員有機(jī)會(huì)知曉孩子們的住址，并且可以更好地了解每個(gè)人所處的環(huán)境。

　　? Small loans are provided initially for purchasing fixed assets such as bicycles, shoe shine kits and basic building materials for a market stall. As the entrepreneurs gain experience, the enterprises can be gradually expanded and consideration can be given to increasing loan amounts. The loan amounts in S.K.I. programs have generally ranged from US30?30?100.

　　?開(kāi)始的時(shí)候應(yīng)該給孩子們提供一些小額貸款，以便他們購(gòu)買如自行車、擦鞋設(shè)備以及市場(chǎng)攤位的原材料等固定資產(chǎn)。當(dāng)從業(yè)者有了經(jīng)驗(yàn)之后，就可以考慮擴(kuò)大生意規(guī)模，并且考慮提髙貸款金額。國(guó)際流浪兒童組織計(jì)劃中的貸款額度通常在30到100美元不等。

　　? All S.K.I. programs have charged interest on the loans, primarily to get the entrepreneurs used to the concept of paying interest on borrowed money. Generally the rates have been modest (lower than bank rates).

　　?國(guó)際流浪兒童組織所有的計(jì)劃都會(huì)對(duì)貸款收取利息。這樣做的主要目的是使貸款人習(xí)慣為借來(lái)的錢支付利息。通常來(lái)講，這種利息都很低(一般低于銀行利率)。

　　Conclusion

　　There is a need to recognise the importance of access to credit for impoverished young people seeking to fulfil economic needs. The provision of small loans to support the entrepreneurial dreams and ambitions of youth can be an effective means to help them change their lives. However, we believe that credit must be extended in association with other types of support that help participants develop critical life skills as well as productive businesses.

　　結(jié)論

　　我們需要認(rèn)識(shí)到，為貧困的年輕人提供貸款以滿足他們的經(jīng)濟(jì)需求是十分重要的。通過(guò)提供小額貸款，實(shí)現(xiàn)年輕人的經(jīng)商夢(mèng)，是幫助他們改變?nèi)松挠行緩?。然而，我們認(rèn)為貸款必須與其他形式的援助一起開(kāi)展，才能幫助年輕人在生意興隆的同時(shí)，發(fā)展出其他關(guān)鍵的生存技巧。

　　Passage2

　　參考譯文

　　Volcanoes-earth-shattering news

　　When Mount Pinatubo suddenly erupted on 9 June 1991, the power of volcanoes past and present again hit the headlines.

　　火山——驚天動(dòng)地大消息

　　1991年6月9日，Pinatubo火山突然爆發(fā)，結(jié)果，有關(guān)過(guò)去和現(xiàn)在火山爆發(fā)威力的文： 章再度登上了報(bào)紙的頭版。

　　A Volcanoes are the ultimate earth-moving machinery. A violent eruption can blow the top few kilometres off a mountain, scatter fine ash practically all over the globe and hurl rock fragments into the stratosphere to darken the skies a continent away.

　　A火山就是終極“移山倒?！钡臋C(jī)器。一次猛烈的噴發(fā)可以把一座山的山頭轟掉幾千米，將細(xì)灰?guī)缀鯙⒈槿澜?，把巖石碎片拋進(jìn)平流層，遮蔽整個(gè)大洲的天空。

　　But the classic eruption — cone-shaped mountain, big bang, mushroom cloud and surges of molten lava — is only a tiny part of a global story. Volcanism, the name given to volcanic processes, really has shaped the world. Eruptions have rifted continents, raised mountain chains, constructed islands and shaped the topography of the earth. The entire ocean floor has a basement of volcanic basalt.

　　然而，這種典型的噴發(fā)——錐形山體，轟隆巨響，蘑菇云升起，熔巖噴涌——只是長(zhǎng)篇故事中的一小章?；鹕阶饔?，這個(gè)由火山活動(dòng)而來(lái)的名詞，的確塑造了我們的世界?；鹕絿姲l(fā)撕裂大陸，舉起山脈，構(gòu)筑島嶼，最終造就了整個(gè)世界地形。五大洋的海底基巖就是火山噴發(fā)形成的玄武巖。

　　Volcanoes have not only made the continents, they are also thought to have made the world’s first stable atmosphere and provided all the water for the oceans, rivers and ice-caps. There are now about 600 active volcanoes. Every year they add two or three cubic kilometres of rock to the continents. Imagine a similar number of volcanoes smoking away for the last 3,500 million years. That is enough rock to explain the continental crust.

　　火山不僅造就了大陸，也許還造就了地球上第一個(gè)穩(wěn)定的大氣層，并且為大洋、河流以及冰川提供了水資源?，F(xiàn)在全球有600多座活火山。這些火山每年都要為地球增加兩、三立方公里的巖石。想像一下，過(guò)去3,500年中這600多座火山一直在噴發(fā)，這些巖石就足夠解釋地殼是如何形成的了。

　　What comes out of volcanic craters is mostly gas. More than 90% of this gas is water vapour from the deep earth: enough to explain, over 3,500 million years, the water in the oceans. The rest of the gas is nitrogen, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, methane, ammonia and hydrogen. The quantity of these gases, again multiplied over 3,500 million years, is enough to explain the mass of the world’s atmosphere. We are alive because volcanoes provided the soil, air and water we need.

　　從火山口噴發(fā)出來(lái)的主要是氣體。其中有90%是來(lái)自地心深處的水蒸氣：火山一連噴發(fā)了3,500年，這就足夠解釋大洋中的水是從哪里來(lái)的了。其余氣體有氮?dú)狻⒍趸?、二氧化硫、甲烷、氨氣以及氫氣。同樣?jīng)過(guò)了3,500年的積累，這些氣體的量就足以解釋大氣層之“大”了。我們能活著，正是因?yàn)榛鹕教峁┝宋覀冃枰耐寥?、空氣和水?/p>

　　B Geologists consider the earth as having a molten core, surrounded by a semi-molten mantle and a brittle, outer skin. It helps to think of a soft-boiled egg with a runny yolk, a firm but squishy white and a hard shell. If the shell is even slightly cracked during boiling, the white material bubbles out and sets like a tiny mountain chain over the crack — like an archipelago of volcanic islands such as the Hawaiian Islands. But the earth is so much bigger and the mantle below is so much hotter.

　　B地質(zhì)學(xué)家認(rèn)為地球有一個(gè)熔化的核心，周圍是半熔化的地幔，外邊是一層脆脆的外皮。想像一個(gè)半熟的雞蛋會(huì)有些幫助——流淌的蛋黃，堅(jiān)實(shí)但又黏稠的蛋清，還有一層堅(jiān)硬的蛋殼。在煮的時(shí)候，蛋殼只要有一點(diǎn)點(diǎn)開(kāi)裂，蛋淸就會(huì)噗噗地冒出來(lái)，在裂縫周圍形成一座小小的山脈——就像夏威夷群島那樣的火山群島。只是地球大得多，里面的地幔也燙得多。

　　Even though the mantle rocks are kept solid by overlying pressure, they can still slowly ‘flow’ like thick treacle. The flow, thought to be in the form of convection currents, is powerful enough to fracture the ‘eggshell’ of the crust into plates, and keep them bumping and grinding against each other, or even overlapping, at the rate of a few centimetres a year. These fracture zones, where the collisions occur, are where earthquakes happen. And, very often, volcanoes.

　　盡管在上層壓力下地幔是固態(tài)的，但是它們?nèi)匀豢梢韵衩厶且粯印傲魈省薄＿@種流動(dòng)據(jù)信是以對(duì)流形式進(jìn)行的，力量足以使地殼這“蛋殼”破裂成板塊，并且使這些板塊互相碰撞摩擦，甚至使它們以一年數(shù)厘米的速度互相重疊。這些破碎的地方正是碰撞發(fā)生的地方，也是地震發(fā)生之處，通常也是火山出現(xiàn)的地方。

　　C These zones are lines of weakness, or hot spots. Every eruption is different, but put at its simplest, where there are weaknesses, rocks deep in the mantle, heated to 1,350℃, will start to expand and rise. As they do so, the pressure drops, and they expand and become liquid and rise more swiftly.

　　C這些區(qū)域正是脆質(zhì)帶，也就是地震多發(fā)區(qū)。每次噴發(fā)都不盡相同，但是簡(jiǎn)而言之，在脆弱的地方，地幔深處的巖石被加熱到1,350攝氏度，并開(kāi)始膨脹上升。當(dāng)?shù)蒯Ｗ兓臅r(shí)候，壓力就會(huì)減小，因此地幔就開(kāi)始膨脹并變成液體，然后迅速上漲。

　　Sometimes it is slow: vast bubbles of magma — molten rock from the mantle — inch towards the surface, cooling slowly, to show through as granite extrusions (as on Skye, or the Great Whin Sill, the lava dyke squeezed out like toothpaste that carries part of Hadrian’s Wall in northern England). Sometimes — as in Northern Ireland, Wales and the Karoo in South Africa — the magma rose faster, and then flowed out horizontally on to the surface in vast thick sheets. In the Deccan plateau in western India, there are more than two million cubic kilometres of lava, some of it 2,400 metres thick, formed over 500,000 years of slurping eruption.

　　有時(shí)候噴發(fā)很慢：巖漿——地幔中熔化的巖石——的巨大氣泡慢慢接近地表，慢慢變冷，最后作為花崗巖突起顯露出來(lái)。(在斯凱島和大玄武巖山，熔巖堤壩像牙膏一樣擠出來(lái)，延伸成為英格蘭北部哈德良長(zhǎng)城的一部分。)有時(shí)候——比如在北愛(ài)爾蘭，威爾士以及南非的干旱臺(tái)地卡魯——巖漿上升得很快，然后以大厚塊的形式水平地涌上地面。在印度西部的德千髙原，經(jīng)過(guò)超過(guò)50萬(wàn)年咕嘟咕嘟的火山噴發(fā)，積累了超過(guò)200萬(wàn)立方公里的熔巖，其中有些厚達(dá)2，400米。

　　Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed. It does not have time to cool as it surges upwards. The gases trapped inside the boiling rock expand suddenly, the lava glows with heat, it begins to froth, and it explodes with tremendous force. Then the slightly cooler lava following it begins to flow over the lip of the crater. It happens on Mars, it happened on the moon, it even happens on some of the moons of Jupiter and Uranus. By studying the evidence, vulcanologists can read the force of the great blasts of the past. Is the pumice light and full of holes? The explosion was tremendous. Are the rocks heavy, with huge crystalline basalt shapes, like the Giant’s Causeway in Northern Ireland? It was a slow, gentle eruption.

　　有時(shí)候巖漿移動(dòng)得十分迅速。在向上噴涌的過(guò)程中沒(méi)有時(shí)間冷卻。沸騰的巖石中所包含的氣體突然膨脹，熔巖因?yàn)槭軣岫W閃發(fā)光，巖漿開(kāi)始冒泡，接著以巨大的力量爆發(fā)。然后，下面稍微涼一點(diǎn)的熔巖開(kāi)始漫出火山口。這種情形曾經(jīng)發(fā)生在火星上，也曾經(jīng)發(fā)生在月球上，甚至在木星和天王星的衛(wèi)星上也曾經(jīng)出現(xiàn)過(guò)。通過(guò)研究這些證據(jù)，火山學(xué)家們得以了解過(guò)去大噴發(fā)的威力。輕石是不是很輕并且充滿孔洞?其噴發(fā)的力量是巨大的。巖石是否很重，是否像北愛(ài)爾蘭巨人堤一樣，有著巨大的結(jié)晶玄武巖形狀?那就是一場(chǎng)緩慢，溫和的噴發(fā)。

　　The biggest eruptions are deep on the mid-ocean floor, where new lava is forcing the continents apart and widening the Atlantic by perhaps five centimetres a year. Look at maps of volcanoes, earthquakes and island chains like the Philippines and Japan, and you can see the rough outlines of what are called tectonic plates — the plates which make up the earth’s crust and mantle. The most dramatic of these is the Pacific ‘ring of fire’ where there have been the most violent explosions — Mount Pinatubo near Manila, Mount St Helen’s in the Rockies and El Chichón in Mexico about a decade ago, not to mention world-shaking blasts like Krakatoa in the Sunda Straits in 1883.

　　最劇烈的噴發(fā)發(fā)生在大洋中間深深的海底，新的熔巖將大陸撕開(kāi)，每年將大西洋加寬五厘米。觀察一下火山、地震和像菲律賓和日本這樣的群島，你就會(huì)看到被稱為地殼板塊的大致輪廓——地殼板塊組成了地球的地殼和地幔。這其中最明顯的例子就是太平洋上的“火環(huán)”，那里曾經(jīng)發(fā)生過(guò)最劇烈的噴發(fā)——馬尼拉附近的Pinatubo噴發(fā)，洛基山脈中的圣海倫山噴發(fā)，還有十年前的墨西哥EI Chichón山噴發(fā)，更不用提1883年蘇丹海峽喀拉喀托山震驚世界的噴發(fā)。

　　D But volcanoes are not very predictable. That is because geological time is not like human time. During quiet periods, volcanoes cap themselves with their own lava by forming a powerful cone from the molten rocks slopping over the rim of the crater; later the lava cools slowly into a huge, hard, stable plug which blocks any further eruption until the pressure below becomes irresistible. In the case of Mount Pinatubo, this took 600 years.

　　D然而火山噴發(fā)并不總是能被預(yù)測(cè)，那是因?yàn)榈刭|(zhì)時(shí)間與人類時(shí)間不同。在休眠期，火山用熔巖將自己蓋起來(lái)，用溢出火山口的熔巖形成堅(jiān)硬的錐型體，隨后熔巖慢慢冷卻成為又大又哽，穩(wěn)固的巖頸，巖頸會(huì)阻止進(jìn)一步的噴發(fā)，直到壓力大到無(wú)法抵擋為止。拿Pinatubo山為例，這個(gè)過(guò)程花了600年。

　　Then, sometimes, with only a small warning, the mountain blows its top. It did this at Mont Pelée in Martinique at 7.49 a.m. on 8 May, 1902. Of a town of 28,000, only two people survived. In 1815, a sudden blast removed the top 1,280 metres of Mount Tambora in Indonesia. The eruption was so fierce that dust thrown into the stratosphere darkened the skies, cancelling the following summer in Europe and North America. Thousands starved as the harvests failed, after snow in June and frosts in August. Volcanoes are potentially world news, especially the quiet ones.

　　然而，有時(shí)候，只有一個(gè)小小的征兆，火山就噴發(fā)了。1902年5月8日早上7點(diǎn)49分，Martinique的Pelée山爆發(fā)了。28，000人的城鎮(zhèn)，只有兩人幸存。在1815年，一次突然噴發(fā)炸掉了印度尼西亞的Tambora山1,280米的山頂。那次噴發(fā)如此劇烈，以至于噴進(jìn)平流層的火山灰遮蔽了天空，使得歐洲和美洲直接進(jìn)人秋季。六月下雪，八月上霜，糧食因此而歉收，上千人忍饑挨餓，火山，尤其是那些安靜的火山，是潛在的世界新聞。

　　Passage3

　　參考譯文

　　Obtaining Linguistic Data

　　獲得語(yǔ)言資料

　　A Many procedures are available for obtaining data about a language. They range from a carefully planned, intensive field investigation in a foreign country to a casual introspection about one’s mother tongue carried out in an armchair at home.

　　A我們有很多種可以用來(lái)獲得語(yǔ)言資料的方式。這些方法既可以是精心準(zhǔn)備，深入細(xì)致的國(guó)外實(shí)地調(diào)査，也可以是在自家搖椅上進(jìn)行的，對(duì)母語(yǔ)的一次不經(jīng)意的反思。

　　B In all cases, someone has to act as a source of language data — an informant. Informants are (ideally) native speakers of a language, who provide utterances for analysis and other kinds of information about the language (e.g. translations, comments about correctness, or judgements on usage). Often, when studying their mother tongue, linguists act as their own informants, judging the ambiguity, acceptability, or other properties of utterances against their own intuitions. The convenience of this approach makes it widely used, and it is considered the norm in the generative approach to linguistics. But a linguist’s personal judgements are often uncertain, or disagree with the judgements of other linguists, at which point recourse is needed to more objective methods of enquiry, using non-linguists as informants. The latter procedure is unavoidable when working on foreign languages, or child speech.

　　B無(wú)論用何種方式，總有人要充當(dāng)語(yǔ)言資料的來(lái)源——這個(gè)人就叫做資料提供者。資料提供者(理想狀態(tài)下)應(yīng)該是以該語(yǔ)言為母語(yǔ)的人，他可以提供做分析之用的語(yǔ)句，還可以給出有關(guān)該語(yǔ)言的其他信息(如翻譯，正誤評(píng)判，用法判斷等)。在研究本國(guó)語(yǔ)言時(shí)，語(yǔ)言學(xué)家本人往往充當(dāng)資料提供者一角，比照他們的直覺(jué)，來(lái)對(duì)語(yǔ)句的歧義現(xiàn)象、可接受度及其他特性加以評(píng)判。這種方法因其便利性而被廣泛使用，而且還被看作是生成式語(yǔ)言研究方式的規(guī)范。然而，一名語(yǔ)言學(xué)家的個(gè)人判斷通常要么是不確定的，要么就與其他語(yǔ)言學(xué)家的意見(jiàn)相左，此時(shí)就需要求助于更為客觀的提問(wèn)方式，讓語(yǔ)言學(xué)家本人以外的人來(lái)充當(dāng)資料提供者。

　　C Many factors must be considered when selecting informants — whether one is working with single speakers (a common situation when languages have not been described before), two people interacting, small groups or large-scale samples. Age, sex, social background and other aspects of identity are important, as these factors are known to influence the kind of language used. The topic of conversation and the characteristics of the social setting (e.g. the level of formality) are also highly relevant, as are the personal qualities of the informants (e.g. their fluency and consistency). For larger studies, scrupulous attention has been paid to the sampling theory employed, and in all cases, decisions have to be made about the best investigative techniques to use.

　　C在研究外語(yǔ)及兒童語(yǔ)言的時(shí)候，第二種方式是不可避免的在選擇資料提供人的時(shí)候要考慮多種因素——你面對(duì)的是單個(gè)說(shuō)話人(當(dāng)語(yǔ)言從未被描述過(guò)的時(shí)候出現(xiàn)的通常狀況)，還是兩個(gè)人互動(dòng);是小組還是大規(guī)模的樣本。年齡、性別、社會(huì)背景以及身份的其他方面都很重要，因?yàn)閾?jù)信這些因素會(huì)影響使用語(yǔ)言的類別。對(duì)話的話題和社交場(chǎng)合的特征(比如正式程度)也極其相關(guān);同樣，資料提供者的個(gè)人資質(zhì)(比如語(yǔ)言流暢度和連貫性)也十分重要。對(duì)于較大規(guī)模的研究來(lái)說(shuō)，要對(duì)所采用的抽樣方式一絲不茍，而且無(wú)論在什么情況下，都要決定采用最好的調(diào)查技術(shù)。

　　D Today, researchers often tape-record informants. This enables the linguist’s claims about the language to be checked, and provides a way of making those claims more accurate (‘difficult’ pieces of speech can be listened to repeatedly). But obtaining naturalistic, good-quality data is never easy. People talk abnormally when they know they are being recorded, and sound quality can be poor. A variety of tape-recording procedures have thus been devised to minimise the ‘observer’s paradox’ (how to observe the way people behave when they are not being observed). Some recordings are made without the speakers being aware of the fact — a procedure that obtains very natural data, though ethical objections must be anticipated. Alternatively, attempts can be made to make the speaker forget about the recording, such as keeping the tape recorder out of sight, or using radio microphones. A useful technique is to introduce a topic that quickly involves the speaker, and stimulates a natural language style (e.g. asking older informants about how times have changed in their locality).

　　D如今，語(yǔ)言研究者通常都會(huì)為資料提供人錄音。這就使語(yǔ)言學(xué)家針對(duì)這些語(yǔ)言的某些論斷變得可以接受檢查，并且還能提供一種使這些觀點(diǎn)更為精確的方式(反復(fù)聽(tīng)“難”懂的語(yǔ)言)。但是想要獲得自然的，高質(zhì)量的資料可沒(méi)那么容易。當(dāng)?shù)弥讳浺舻臅r(shí)候，人們說(shuō)話的方式就不同了，而且音質(zhì)可以很差。因此，一系列的錄音方式就被設(shè)計(jì)出來(lái)以便盡可能地解除研究者的矛盾(如何能夠觀察人們的行為方式又不讓他們知道正在被觀察)。有時(shí)候，說(shuō)話人是在毫不知情的情況下被錄音的——這一方式可以獲得極自然的材料，但是道德方面的反對(duì)意見(jiàn)也是預(yù)料之中的事。另外，也可以嘗試讓說(shuō)話人忘記錄音這回事，比如把錄音機(jī)藏起來(lái)，或是使用無(wú)線麥克風(fēng)。還有一種管用的方式，就是提出一個(gè)說(shuō)話人能夠迅速融入的話題，從而激發(fā)一種自然的語(yǔ)言風(fēng)格(比如詢問(wèn)年長(zhǎng)的資料提供者：在他們的家鄉(xiāng)，時(shí)代是如何變遷的)。

　　E An audio tape recording does not solve all the linguist’s problems, however. Speech is often unclear and ambiguous. Where possible, therefore, the recording has to be supplemented by the observer’s written comments on the non-verbal behaviour of the participants, and about the context in general. A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of what is said. Video recordings avoid these problems to a large extent, but even they have limitations (the camera cannot be everywhere), and transcriptions always benefit from any additional commentary provided by an observer.

　　E然而，磁帶錄音的方式并不能夠解決語(yǔ)言學(xué)家面臨的所有問(wèn)題。講話通常又不清楚，又有歧義。因此，如果可能的話，要對(duì)參與者的非語(yǔ)言行為以及整體語(yǔ)境做出書(shū)面評(píng)述，作為對(duì)錄音的補(bǔ)充。例如，一個(gè)面部表情就可以徹底改變一句話的意思。在很大情況下，可以用錄像方式避免這樣的問(wèn)題，但是就算是這個(gè)方式也存在局限性(攝像機(jī)不可能安得到處都是)，而且文字謄本總是要得益于觀察者另外提供的注解。

　　F Linguists also make great use of structured sessions, in which they systematically ask their informants for utterances that describe certain actions, objects or behaviours. With a bilingual informant, or through use of an interpreter, it is possible to use translation techniques (‘How do you say table in your language?’). A large number of points can be covered in a short time, using interview worksheets and questionnaires. Often, the researcher wishes to obtain information about just a single variable, in which case a restricted set of questions may be used: a particular feature of pronunciation, for example, can be elicited by asking the informant to say a restricted set of words. There are also several direct methods of elicitation, such as asking informants to fill in the blanks in a substitution frame (e.g. I___ see a car), or feeding them the wrong stimulus for correction (‘Is it possible to say I no can see?’).

　　F語(yǔ)言學(xué)家還需要大量使用結(jié)構(gòu)化會(huì)議，當(dāng)中他們系統(tǒng)地要求資料提供者說(shuō)出有關(guān)某種動(dòng)作、物體及行為的語(yǔ)句。如果資料提供者是說(shuō)雙語(yǔ)的，或者通過(guò)翻譯的幫助，我們就有可能用到翻譯技巧(比如你們?cè)趺凑f(shuō)桌子這個(gè)詞)。通過(guò)使用面試表格和調(diào)查問(wèn)卷，我們能夠在很短的時(shí)間里覆蓋大量的知識(shí)點(diǎn)。通常，研究者只想獲得有關(guān)某個(gè)語(yǔ)言變項(xiàng)的信息，在這種情況下，就必須使用一套嚴(yán)格設(shè)置好的問(wèn)題：比如說(shuō)，發(fā)音上的某個(gè)特殊規(guī)則，可以用要求資料提供者讀出一組嚴(yán)格設(shè)定的單詞的方法引出來(lái)。我們還有幾種直接的誘導(dǎo)方式，比如讓資料提供人填寫(xiě)替換表中的空格(比如：我__看到一輛汽車)，或者給他們做改錯(cuò)練習(xí)(“能不能說(shuō)我能不看到?”)。

　　G A representative sample of language, compiled for the purpose of linguistic analysis, is known as a corpus. A corpus enables the linguist to make unbiased statements about frequency of usage, and it provides accessible data for the use of different researchers. Its range and size are variable. Some corpora attempt to cover the language as a whole, taking extracts from many kinds of text; others are extremely selective, providing a collection of material that deals only with a particular linguistic feature. The size of the corpus depends on practical factors, such as the time available to collect, process and store the data: it can take up to several hours to provide an accurate transcription of a few minutes of speech. Sometimes a small sample of data will be enough to decide a linguistic hypothesis; by contrast, corpora in major research projects can total millions of words. An important principle is that all corpora, whatever their size, are inevitably limited in their coverage, and always need to be supplemented by data derived from the intuitions of native speakers of the language, through either introspection or experimentation.

　　G為了語(yǔ)言分析而被編纂起來(lái)的語(yǔ)言代表樣本被叫做語(yǔ)料庫(kù)。語(yǔ)料庫(kù)使得語(yǔ)言學(xué)家能夠?qū)σ环N用法的頻率加以客觀陳述，而且還可以為其他的研究者所用。語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的范圍和規(guī)模是各不相同的。有些語(yǔ)料庫(kù)試圖將語(yǔ)言作為一個(gè)整體來(lái)研究，從不同類型的文章中節(jié)選材料;其他的則十分挑剔，只提供針對(duì)某個(gè)特殊語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象的一組材料。語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的大小是由實(shí)踐因素決定的，比如說(shuō)可以用來(lái)搜集、處理、存儲(chǔ)資料的時(shí)間：要想為幾分鐘的演講做一個(gè)精確的原文，可能要花上數(shù)小時(shí)的時(shí)間。有時(shí)候，個(gè)小資料樣本就足以證明一種語(yǔ)言學(xué)假說(shuō)。相反地，重大研究項(xiàng)目的語(yǔ)料庫(kù)加起來(lái)足有上百萬(wàn)字。一個(gè)重要的原則是，無(wú)論大小，所有的語(yǔ)料庫(kù)在覆蓋面上都不可避免地存在局限性，因此，它們總是需要通過(guò)內(nèi)省或?qū)嶒?yàn)的方式，被源自母語(yǔ)者直覺(jué)的資料補(bǔ)充。

　　劍橋雅思閱讀4原文解析(test3)

　　Question 1

　　答案：A

　　關(guān)鍵詞：box/beginning

　　定位原文：標(biāo)題下方方框中

　　解題思路：題目是問(wèn)文章開(kāi)頭的方框當(dāng)中的引言是什么意思。A答案：exemplify例證;舉……例子;B答案是解釋國(guó)際流浪兒童組織建立的原因;C答案：outline描述，描畫(huà)輪廓;D答案中highlight是指突出、強(qiáng)調(diào)。很明顯引言是在舉例子，故正確答案選A。

　　Question 2

　　答案：D

　　關(guān)鍵詞：purpose/S.K.I

　　定位原文：Introduction部分第2段首句“Over the past nine years, …lives of street children.”

　　解題思路：“to support the economic lives of street children...等同于D答案，而其他三個(gè)選項(xiàng)基本未提到。

　　Question 3

　　答案：C

　　關(guān)鍵詞：reason/end up

　　定位原文：Background部分的第一段首句“Typically, children do not end up on … and violence.”

　　解題思路：…the demand for income at home...等同于poverty，而D答案crime并不是兒童流浪的原因，而是其可能產(chǎn)生的后果。

　　Question 4

　　答案：C

　　關(guān)鍵詞：independent

　　定位原文：Background部分的第2段最后1句“Many children may choose entrepreneurship because it allows them a degree of independence,”

　　解題思路：A,B,D三個(gè)答案都比較極端，只有C符合本文的主題。children獨(dú)立的方式是“choose entrepreneurship”與C選項(xiàng)中的“set up their own businesses”是同義替換，故C 正確。

　　Question 5

　　答案：Sudan/India

　　關(guān)鍵詞：country/courier service

　　定位原文：Street Business Partnerships部分第1點(diǎn)“The S.K.I. Bicycle Courier Service first started in the Sudan. Participants in this enterprise were supplied with bicycles, which they used to deliver parcels and messages, and which they were required to pay for gradually from their wages. A similar program was taken up in Bangalore, India.”

　　解題思路：提供courier service的兩個(gè)國(guó)家分別是Sudan和India。

　　Question 6

　　答案：bicycles

　　關(guān)鍵詞：courier service

　　定位原文：Street Business Partnership部分第1點(diǎn)

　　解題思路：題干中的provision是文中provide的變形，所以這里的正確答案是bicycles。

　　Question 7

　　答案：Shoe Shine Collective

　　關(guān)鍵詞：Dominican Republic

　　定位原文：Street Business Partnership部分第2點(diǎn)“Another successful project, The Shoe Shine Collective, was a partnership program with the Y.W.C.A. in the Dominican Republic. In this project, participants were lent money to purchase shoe shine boxes. They were also given a safe place to store their equipment, and facilities for individual savings plans.”

　　解題思路：定位到原文，可知答案是Shoe Shine Collective。

　　Question 8

　　答案：life skills

　　關(guān)鍵詞：Zambia

　　定位原文：Street Business Partnership部分第3點(diǎn)“The Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative in Zambia is a joint program with the Red Cross Society and the Y.W.C.A. Street youths are supported to start their own small business through business training, life skills training and access to credit.”

　　解題思路：定位到該句話末尾，可知正確答案是life skills。

　　Question 9

　　答案：NO

　　關(guān)鍵詞：set up/money

　　定位原文：Lessons learned部分第1點(diǎn)“Being an entrepreneur is not for everyone, for every street child.”

　　解題思路：很明顯文中說(shuō)的不是對(duì)于每個(gè)人來(lái)說(shuō)的，所以答案應(yīng)該是NO。

　　Question 10

　　答案：NOT GIVEN

　　關(guān)鍵詞：families/S.K.I.

　　定位原文：Lessons learned部分第4點(diǎn)“There are tremendous advantages to involving parents or guardians in the program, where such relationships exist. Home visits allow staff the opportunity to know where the participants live, and to understand more about each individual's situation.”

　　解題思路：這一點(diǎn)當(dāng)中雖然提到了流浪兒童的家人，但是并沒(méi)有說(shuō)明他們是否要從S.K.I.那里得到幫助，屬于純粹未提及型的NOT GIVEN。

　　Question 11

　　答案：NO

　　關(guān)鍵詞：loan

　　定位原文：Lessons learned部分第5點(diǎn)“Small loans are provided initially for …ranged from US30?30?100.”

　　解題思路：題目當(dāng)中如果含有ONLY/ONE這樣的詞，往往選NO。從文中我們也可以看出孩子們不只可以申請(qǐng)一筆貸款。

　　Question 12

　　答案：YES

　　關(guān)鍵詞：pay back

　　定位原文：Lessons learned部分第6點(diǎn)“All S.K.I. programs have charged interest on the loans, primarily to get the entrepreneurs used to the concept of paying interest on borrowed money. Generally the rates have been modest (lower than bank rates).”

　　解題思路：All S.K.I. programs have charged interest on the loans.所有的計(jì)劃都要收取利息，也就是要多還一點(diǎn)錢。

　　Question 13

　　答案：A

　　關(guān)鍵詞：conclude

　　定位原文：Conclusion部分“However, we believe that credit must be extended in association with other types of support...”

　　解題思路：根據(jù)conclude可以定位到conclusion部分，根據(jù)“credit must be extended in association with other types of support”可知正確答案是A。

　　Question 14

　　答案：iii

　　關(guān)鍵詞：無(wú)

　　定位原文：A部分：第一段首句Volcanoes are the ultimate earth-moving machinery. 第二段：Eruptions have rifted continents…a basement of volcanic basalt.

　　第三段開(kāi)頭:Volcanoes have not only made the continents，they are also thought to have made the world's first stable atmosphere and...

　　解題思路：A部分說(shuō)明了火山活動(dòng)的作用，正好和iii選項(xiàng)中的火山與地球的特征吻合，因此答案為iii。

　　Question 15

　　答案：i

　　關(guān)鍵詞：無(wú)

　　定位原文：B部分：第1段：整個(gè)段落描述了火山爆發(fā)的起因。第二段最后：

　　These fracture zones, where the collisions occur, are where earthquakes happen. And，very often, volcanoes.

　　解題思路：通過(guò)掃描這兩個(gè)段落，發(fā)現(xiàn)其中主要將地球比喻成一個(gè)雞蛋，并且由此說(shuō)明了火山爆發(fā)的原因。因此答案應(yīng)該是i。

　　Question 16

　　答案：iv

　　關(guān)鍵詞：無(wú)

　　定位原文：第2段：Sometimes,it is slow...第3段;Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed. 第4段：The biggest eruptions are deep on the mid-ocean floor.

　　解題思路：此部分出現(xiàn)了大量的火山名字，由此我們可以預(yù)測(cè)該段落講的是火山噴發(fā)的不同類型。因此答案是iv。

　　Question 17

　　答案：vi

　　關(guān)鍵詞：無(wú)

　　定位原文：第1段：But volcanoes are not very predict?able.

　　解題思路：vi答案是說(shuō)火山爆發(fā)的不可預(yù)測(cè)性。

　　Question 18

　　答案： plates/the tectonic plates/the plates

　　關(guān)鍵詞：sections of the earth's crust/volcanic activity

　　定位原文：C部分的第4段第2句“...and you can see the rough outlines of what are called tectonic plates--the plates which make up the earth's crust and mantle.”

　　解題思路：很明顯，應(yīng)該是被叫做the tectonic plates。

　　Question 19

　　答案：magma

　　關(guān)鍵詞：molten rock from the mantle

　　定位原文：C部分第2段第1句：Sometimes it is slow: vast bubbles of magma—molten rock from the mantle…

　　解題思路：根據(jù)關(guān)鍵詞定位，可知答案為magma。

　　Question 20

　　答案：ring of fire

　　關(guān)鍵詞：zone/the Pacific Ocean

　　定位原文：C部分第4段第3句：The most dramatic of these is the Pacific “ring of fire”...

　　解題思路：根據(jù)定位句信息可知正確答案是ring of fire。

　　Question 21

　　答案：600 years/for 600 years/600

　　關(guān)鍵詞：Mount Pinatubo/inactive

　　定位原文：D部分第1段最后一句：In the case of Mount Pinatubo, this took 600 years.

　　解題思路：根據(jù)定位句信息可知正確答案是600 years。

　　Question 22

　　答案：water

　　關(guān)鍵詞：produce/atmosphere

　　定位原文：A部分的第3段第1句：Volcanoes have not only made the continents, they are also thought to have made the world's first stable atmosphere and provided all the water for the oceans, rivers and ice-caps.

　　解題思路：火山不僅制造出陸地，也為地球提供了大氣，為海洋、河川和冰帽提供了水。

　　Question 23

　　答案：magma/lava

　　關(guān)鍵詞：different types of eruptions /moves slowly

　　定位原文：Sometimes it is slow: vast bubbles of magma—molten rock from the mantle—inch to?wards the surface.

　　解題思路：首先可以根據(jù)之前做過(guò)的LIST OF HEADINGS題判定，C部分講到了不同類型的火山爆發(fā)。然后尋找slowly這個(gè)詞。根據(jù)定位句信息可知正確答案是magma。

　　Question 24

　　答案：(west) India

　　關(guān)鍵詞：quickly/horizontally Northern Ireland/Wales/South Africa

　　定位原文：C部分第2段第2句：Sometimes—as in Northern Ireland, Wales and the Karoo in South Africa一the magma rose faster，and then flowed out horizontally on to the surface in vast thick sheets. In the Deccan Plateau in western India, …

　　解題思路：此處要求填一個(gè)地名，根據(jù)定位句信息可知正確答案為(west) India。

　　Question 25

　　答案：explodes

　　關(guān)鍵詞：third/lava/very quickly/violently

　　定位原文：C部分第3段前3句：Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed. It does not have time to cool as it surges upwards. The gases trapped in side the boiling rock expand suddenly, the lava glows with heat, it begins to froth, and it exploded with tremendous force.

　　解題思路：這個(gè)空要求填一個(gè)動(dòng)詞，而且要注意時(shí)態(tài)。根據(jù)定位句信息可知正確答案為explodes。

　　Question 26

　　答案：gases

　　關(guān)鍵詞： magma/emitted

　　定位原文：C部分第3段：Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed. It does not have time to cool as it surges upwards. The gases trapped in side the boiling rock expand suddenly,...

　　解題思路：emit是“發(fā)射，發(fā)出”的意思，跟文中的expand屬于同義替換，故正確答案應(yīng)該是gases。

　　Question 27

　　答案：D

　　關(guān)鍵詞：recording

　　定位原文：D段首句“Today, researchers often tape-record informants.”

　　解題思路：題干問(wèn)的剛好是哪一段講到了錄音對(duì)人們談話方式的影響。故答案是D。

　　Question 28

　　答案：E

　　關(guān)鍵詞：body language

　　定位原文：E段第3句“Where possible, therefore, the recording has to be supplemented by the observer's written comments on the non-verbal behavior of the participants,...”

　　解題思路：題干問(wèn)的是哪一段講到了記錄人們肢體語(yǔ)言的重要性。故答案是E。

　　Question 29

　　答案：C

　　關(guān)鍵詞：social situation

　　定位原文：C段第2句“Age, sex，social background and other aspects of identity are important, as these factors are known to influence the kind of language used.”

　　解題思路：題目問(wèn)的是哪段提到了語(yǔ)言受到社會(huì)背景的影響。故答案是C。

　　Question 30

　　答案：D

　　關(guān)鍵詞：self-conscious

　　定位原文：D段第6句“Some recordings are made without speakers being aware of the fact — a procedure that obtains very natural data,...”

　　解題思路：題目問(wèn)的是哪一段提到了如何幫助資料提供者變得自然一點(diǎn)。故答案是D。

　　Question 31

　　答案：F

　　關(guān)鍵詞：specific data various methods

　　定位原文：F段第3句和最后一句“A large number of points can be covered in a short time, using interview work-sheets and questionnaires.”

　　“There are also several direct methods of elicitation,…”

　　解題思路：題目問(wèn)的是哪段提到了產(chǎn)生詳細(xì)信息的不同方式。答案是F。

　　Question 32

　　答案： (the) linguists (acts)/(the) linguist (act)

　　關(guān)鍵詞：convenient/not objective enough

　　定位原文：B段倒數(shù)第2句“Often, when studying their mother tongue, linguists act as their own informants, judging the ambiguity, acceptability, or other properties of utterances against their own intuitions. The convenience of this approach makes it widely used, and it is considered the norm in the generative approach to linguistics.”

　　解題思路：根據(jù)定位句信息可知答案為linguists act。

　　Question 33

　　答案：foreign languages

　　關(guān)鍵詞：non-linguist

　　定位原文：B段最后兩句：…at which point recourse is needed to more objective methods of enquiry, using non-linguists as informants. The latter procedure is unavoidable when working on foreign languages, or child speech.

　　解題思路：根據(jù)定位句信息可知答案為foreign languages。

　　Question 34

　　答案：(the) (poor) quality

　　關(guān)鍵詞：recording/sound

　　定位原文：D段第3-4句“But obtaining naturalistic, good-quality data is never easy. People talk abnor?mally when they know they are being recorded, and sound quality can be poor. ”

　　解題思路：根據(jù)定位句信息可知答案為(the)(poor)quality。

　　Question 35

　　答案：facial expression

　　關(guān)鍵詞：video/speaker

　　定位原文：E段第4句“A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of what is said.”

　　解題思路：根據(jù)定位句信息可知答案為facial expression。

　　Question 36

　　答案：video recording/camera/video camera/recording

　　關(guān)鍵詞：video/miss certain things

　　定位原文：E段最后一句“Video recording avoid these problems to a large extent, but even they have limitations (the camera cannot be everywhere), and transcriptions always bene?fit from any additional commentary provided by an observer.”

　　解題思路：根據(jù)定位句信息可知答案為video recording/camera/video camera/recording。

　　Question 37

　　答案：fre?quency of usage

　　關(guān)鍵詞：comment

　　定位原文：G段第2句“A corpus enables the linguists to make unbiased statements about fre?quency of usage,...”

　　解題思路：這里的make unbiased statements about和題干中的comment objectively on是同義替換，故正確答案為fre?quency of usage。

　　Question 38

　　答案：particular linguistic feature

　　關(guān)鍵詞：while/focus on

　　定位原文：G段第4句“Some corpora attempt to cover the language as a whole, taking extracts from many kinds of text; others are extremely selective, providing a collection of material that deals only with a particular linguistic feature.”

　　解題思路deals only with和focus on在這里是同義替換，故正確答案為particular linguistic feature。

　　Question 39

　　答案：size

　　關(guān)鍵詞：length of time

　　定位原文：The size of the corpus depends on practical factors, such as the time available to collect, process and store the data.

　　解題思路：corpus的size取決于很多因素，例如時(shí)間等，所以題干中時(shí)間的長(zhǎng)短會(huì)影響的應(yīng)該是corpus的size。

　　Question 40

　　答案：intuitions

　　關(guān)鍵詞：those who speak

　　定位原文：G段最后一句“An important principle is that all corpora, whatever their size，are inevitably limited in their coverage, and always need to be supplemented by data de?rived from the intuitions of native speakers of the language, through either introspection or experimentation.”

　　解題思路：根據(jù)定位信息，可知正確答案為intuitions。

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