劍橋雅思閱讀5test2翻譯及答案
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劍橋雅思閱讀5原文(test2)
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.
BAKELITE
The birth of modern plastics
In 1907, Leo Hendrick Baekeland, a Belgian scientist working in New York, discovered and patented a revolutionary new synthetic material. His invention, which he named ‘Bakelite,’ was of enormous technological importance, and effectively launched the modern plastics industry.
The term ‘plastic’ comes from the Greek plassein, meaning ‘to mould’. Some plastics are derived from natural sources, some are semi-synthetic (the result of chemical action on a natural substance), and some are entirely synthetic, that is, chemically engineered from the constituents of coal or oil. Some are ‘thermoplastic’, which means that, like candlewax, they melt when heated and can then be reshaped. Others are ‘thermosetting’: like eggs, they cannot revert to their original viscous state, and their shape is thus fixed for ever. Bakelite had the distinction of being the first totally synthetic thermosetting plastic.
The history of today’s plastics begins with the discovery of a series of semi-synthetic thermoplastic materials in the mid-nineteenth century. The impetus behind the development of these early plastics was generated by a number of factors — immense technological progress in the domain of chemistry, coupled with wider cultural changes, and the pragmatic need to find acceptable substitutes for dwindling supplies of ‘luxury’ materials such as tortoiseshell and ivory.
Baekeland’s interest in plastics began in 1885 when, as a young chemistry student in Belgium, he embarked on research into phenolic resins, the group of sticky substances produced when phenol (carbolic acid) combines with an aldehyde (a volatile fluid similar to alcohol). He soon abandoned the subject, however, only returning to it some years later. By 1905 he was a wealthy New Yorker, having recently made his fortune with the invention of a new photographic paper. While Baekeland had been busily amassing dollars, some advances had been made in the development of plastics. The years 1899 and 1900 had seen the patenting of the first semi-synthetic thermosetting material that could be manufactured on an industrial scale. In purely scientific terms, Baekeland’s major contribution to the field is not so much the actual discovery of the material to which he gave his name, but rather the method by which a reaction between phenol and formaldehyde could be controlled, thus making possible its preparation on a commercial basis. On 13 July 1907, Baekeland took out his famous patent describing this preparation, the essential features of which are still in use today.
The original patent outlined a three-stage process, in which phenol and formaldehyde (from wood or coal) were initially combined under vacuum inside a large egg-shaped kettle. The result was a resin known as Novalak which became soluble and malleable when heated. The resin was allowed to cool in shallow trays until it hardened, and then broken up and ground into powder. Other substances were then introduced: including fillers, such as woodflour, asbestos or cotton, which increase strength and moisture resistance, catalysts (substances to speed up the reaction between two chemicals without joining to either) and hexa, a compound of ammonia and formaldehyde which supplied the additional formaldehyde necessary to form a thermosetting resin. This resin was then left to cool and harden, and ground up a second time. The resulting granular powder was raw Bakelite, ready to be made into a vast range of manufactured objects. In the last stage, the heated Bakelite was poured into a hollow mould of the required shape and subjected to extreme heat and pressure, thereby ‘setting’ its form for life.
The design of Bakelite objects, everything from earrings to television sets, was governed to a large extent by the technical requirements of the molding process. The object could not be designed so that it was locked into the mould and therefore difficult to extract. A common general rule was that objects should taper towards the deepest part of the mould, and if necessary the product was molded in separate pieces. Moulds had to be carefully designed so that the molten Bakelite would flow evenly and completely into the mould. Sharp corners proved impractical and were thus avoided, giving rise to the smooth, ‘streamlined’ style popular in the 1930s. The thickness of the walls of the mould was also crucial: thick walls took longer to cool and harden, a factor which had to be considered by the designer in order to make the most efficient use of machines.
Baekeland’s invention, although treated with disdain in its early years, went on to enjoy an unparalleled popularity which lasted throughout the first half of the twentieth century. It became the wonder product of the new world of industrials expansion — ‘the material of a thousand uses’. Being both non-porous and heat-resistant, Bakelite kitchen goods were promoted as being germ-free and sterilisable. Electrical manufacturers seized on its insulating properties, and consumers everywhere relished its dazzling array of shades, delighted that they were now, at last, no longer restricted to the wood tones and drab browns of the preplastic era. It then fell from favour again during the 1950s, and was despised and destroyed in vast quantities. Recently, however, it has been experiencing something of a renaissance, with renewed demand for original Bakelite objects in the collectors’ marketplace, and museums, societies and dedicated individuals once again appreciating the style and originality of this innovative material.
Questions 1-3
Complete the summary.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.
Some plastics behave in a similar way to 1……… in that they melt under heat and can be moulded into new forms. Bakelite was unique because it was the first material to be both entirely 2……… in origin, and thermosetting.
There were several reasons for the research into plastics in the nineteenth century, among them the great advances that had been made in the field of 3…………and the search for alternatives to natural resources like ivory.
Questions 4-8
Complete the flow-chart.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 4-8 on your answer sheet.
The Production of Bakelite
圖片6
Questions 9 and 10
Choose TWO letters A-E.
Write your answers in boxes 9 and 10 on your answer sheet.
NB Your answers may be given in either order.
Which TWO of the following factors influencing the design of Bakelite objects are mentioned in the text?
A the function which the object would serve
B the ease with which the resin could fill the mould
C the facility with which the object could be removed from the mould
D the limitations of the materials used to manufacture the mould
E the fashionable styles of the period
Questions 11-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
11 Modern-day plastic preparation is based on the same principles as that patented in 1907.
12 Bakelite was immediately welcomed as a practical and versatile material.
13 Bakelite was only available in a limited range of colours.
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-27, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.
What’s so funny?
John McCrone reviews recent research on humor
The joke comes over the headphones: ‘Which side of a dog has the most hair? The left.’ No, not funny. Try again. ‘Which side of a dog has the most hair? The outside.’ Hah! The punchline is silly yet fitting, tempting a smile, even a laugh. Laughter has always struck people as deeply mysterious, perhaps pointless. The writer Arthur Koestler dubbed it the luxury reflex: ‘unique in that it serves no apparent biological purpose. ’
Theories about humour have an ancient pedigree. Plato expressed the idea that humor is simply a delighted feeling of superiority over others. Kant and Freud felt that joke-telling relies on building up a psychic tension which is safely punctured by the ludicrousness of the punchline. But most modern humor theorists have settled on some version of Aristotle’s belief that jokes are based on a reaction to or resolution of incongruity, when the punchline is either a nonsense or, though appearing silly, has a clever second meaning.
Graeme Ritchie, a computational linguist in Edinburgh, studies the linguistic structure of jokes in order to understand not only humor but language understanding and reasoning in machines. He says that while there is no single format for jokes, many revolve around a sudden and surprising conceptual shift. A comedian will present a situation followed by an unexpected interpretation that is also apt.
So even if a punchline sounds silly, the listener can see there is a clever semantic fit and that sudden mental ‘Aha!’ is the buzz that makes us laugh. Viewed from this angle, humor is just a form of creative insight, a sudden leap to a new perspective.
However, there is another type of laughter, the laughter of social appeasement and it is important to understand this too. Play is a crucial part of development in most young mammals. Rats produce ultrasonic squeaks to prevent their scuffles turning nasty. Chimpanzees have a ‘play-face’ — a gaping expression accompanied by a panting ‘a(chǎn)h ah’ noise. In humans, these signals have mutated into smiles and laughs. Researchers believe social situations, rather than cognitive events such as jokes, trigger these instinctual markers of play or appeasement. People laugh on fairground rides or when tickled to flag a play situation, whether they feel amused or not.
Both social and cognitive types of laughter tap into the same expressive machinery in our brains, the emotion and motor circuits that produce smiles and excited vocalisations. However, if cognitive laughter is the product of more general thought processes, it should result from more expansive brain activity.
Psychologist Vinod Goel investigated humour using the new technique of ‘single event’ functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). An MRI scanner uses magnetic fields and radio waves to track the changes in oxygenated blood that accompany mental activity. Until recently, MRI scanners needed several minutes of activity and so could not be used to track rapid thought processes such as comprehending a joke. New developments now allow half-second ‘snapshots’ of all sorts of reasoning and problem-solving activities.
Although Goel felt being inside a brain scanner was hardly the ideal place for appreciating a joke, he found evidence that understanding a joke involves a widespread mental shift. His scans showed that at the beginning of a joke the listener’s prefrontal cortex lit up, particularly the right prefrontal believed to be critical for problem solving. But there was also activity in the temporal lobes at the side of the head (consistent with attempts to rouse stored knowledge) and in many other brain areas. Then when the punchline arrived, a new area sprang to life — the orbital prefrontal cortex. This patch of brain tucked behind the orbits of the eyes is associated with evaluating information.
Making a rapid emotional assessment of the events of the moment is an extremely demanding job for the brain, animal or human. Energy and arousal levels may need to be retuned in the blink of an eye. These abrupt changes will produce either positive or negative feelings. The orbital cortex, the region that becomes active in Goel’s experiment, seems the best candidate for the site that feeds such feelings into higher-level thought processes, with its close connections to the brain’s sub-cortical arousal apparatus and centres of metabolic control.
All warm-blooded animals make constant tiny adjustments in arousal in response to external events, but humans, who have developed a much more complicated internal life as a result of language, respond emotionally not only to their surroundings, but to their own thoughts. Whenever a sought-for answer snaps into place, there is a shudder of pleased recognition. Creative discovery being pleasurable, humans have learned to find ways of milking this natural response. The fact that jokes tap into our general evaluative machinery explains why the line between funny and disgusting, or funny and frightening, can be so fine. Whether a joke gives pleasure or pain depends on a person’s outlook.
Humor may be a luxury, but the mechanism behind it is no evolutionary accident. As Peter Derks, a psychologist at William and Mary College in Virginia, says: ‘I like to think of humour as the distorted mirror of the mind. It’s creative, perceptual, analytical and lingual. If we can figure out how the mind processes humor, then we’ll have a pretty good handle on how it works in general.’
Questions 14-20
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
14 Arthur Koestler considered laughter biologically important in several ways.
15 Plato believed humour to be a sign of above-average intelligence.
16 Kant believed that a successful joke involves the controlled release of nervous energy.
17 Current thinking on humour has largely ignored Aristotle’s view on the subject.
18 Graeme Ritchie’s work links jokes to artificial intelligence.
19 Most comedians use personal situations as a source of humour.
20 Chimpanzees make particular noises when they are playing.
Questions 21-23
The diagram below shows the areas of the brain activated by jokes.
Label the diagram.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 21-23 on your answer sheet.
Questions 24-27
Complete each sentence with the correct ending A-G below.
Write the correct letter A-G in boxes 24-27 on your answer sheet.
24 One of the brain’s most difficult tasks is to
25 Because of the language they have developed, humans
26 Individual responses to humour
27 Peter Derks believes that humour
A react to their own thoughts.
B helped create language in humans.
C respond instantly to whatever is happening.
D may provide valuable information about the operation of the brain.
E cope with difficult situations.
F relate to a person’s subjective views.
G led our ancestors to smile and then laugh.
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 28-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.
The Birth of Scientific English
World science is dominated today by a small number of languages, including Japanese, German and French, but it is English which is probably the most popular global language of science. This is not just because of the importance of English-speaking countries such as the USA in scientific research; the scientists of many non-English-speaking countries find that they need to write their research papers in English to reach a wide international audience. Given the prominence of scientific English today, it may seem surprising that no one really knew how to write science in English before the 17th century. Before that, Latin was regarded as the lingua franca1 for European intellectuals.
The European Renaissance (c. 14th-16th century) is sometimes called the ‘revival of learning’, a time of renewed interest in the ‘lost knowledge’ of classical times. At the same time, however, scholars also began to test and extend this knowledge. The emergent nation states of Europe developed competitive interests in world exploration and the development of trade. Such expansion, which was to take the English language west to America and east to India, was supported by scientific developments such as the discovery of magnetism and hence the invention of the compass improvements in cartography and — perhaps the most important scientific revolution of them all — the new theories of astronomy and the movement of the Earth in relation to the planets and stars, developed by Copernicus (1473-1543).
England was one of the first countries where scientists adopted and publicised Copernican ideas with enthusiasm. Some of these scholars, including two with interests in language — John Wallis and John Wilkins — helped found the Royal Society in 1660 in order to promote empirical scientific research.
Across Europe similar academies and societies arose, creating new national traditions of science. In the initial stages of the scientific revolution, most publications in the national languages were popular works, encyclopaedias, educational textbooks and translations. Original science was not done in English until the second half of the 17th century. For example, Newton published his mathematical treatise, known as the Principia, in Latin, but published his later work on the properties of light — Opticks — in English.
There were several reasons why original science continued to be written in Latin. The first was simply a matter of audience. Latin was suitable for an international audience of scholars, whereas English reached a socially wider, but more local, audience. Hence, popular science was written in English.
A second reason for writing in Latin may, perversely, have been a concern for secrecy. Open publication had dangers in putting into the public domain preliminary ideas which had not yet been fully exploited by their ‘a(chǎn)uthor’. This growing concern about intellectual property rights was a feature of the period — it reflected both the humanist notion of the individual, rational scientist who invents and discovers through private intellectual labour, and the growing connection between original science and commercial exploitation. There was something of a social distinction between ‘scholars and gentlemen’ who understood Latin, and men of trade who lacked a classical education. And in the mid-17th century it was common practice for mathematicians to keep their discoveries and proofs secret, by writing them in cipher, in obscure languages, or in private messages deposited in a sealed box with the Royal Society. Some scientists might have felt more comfortable with Latin precisely because its audience, though international, was socially restricted. Doctors clung the most keenly to Latin as an ‘insider language’.
A third reason why the writing of original science in English was delayed may have been to do with the linguistic inadequacy of English in the early modern period. English was not well equipped to deal with scientific argument. First it lacked the necessary technical vocabulary. Second, it lacked the grammatical resources required to represent the world in an objective and impersonal way, and to discuss the relations, such as cause and effect, that might hold between complex and hypothetical entities.
Fortunately, several members of the Royal Society possessed an interest in Language and became engaged in various linguistic projects. Although a proposal in 1664 to establish a committee for improving the English language came to little, the society’s members did a great deal to foster the publication of science in English and to encourage the development of a suitable writing style. Many members of the Royal Society also published monographs in English. One of the first was by Robert Hooke, the society’s first curator of experiments, who described his experiments with microscopes in Micrographia (1665). This work is largely narrative in style, based on a transcript of oral demonstrations and lectures.
In 1665 a new scientific journal, Philosophical Transactions, was inaugurated. Perhaps the first international English-language scientific journal, it encouraged a new genre of scientific writing, that of short, focused accounts of particular experiments.
The 17th century was thus a formative period in the establishment of scientific English. In the following century much of this momentum was lost as German established itself as the leading European language of science. It is estimated that by the end of the 18th century 401 German scientific journals had been established as opposed to 96 in France and 50 in England. However, in the 19th century scientific English again enjoyed substantial lexical growth as the industrial revolution created the need for new technical vocabulary, and new, specialized, professional societies were instituted to promote and publish in the new disciplines.
lingua franca: a language which is used for communication between groups of people who speak different languages
Questions 28-34
Complete the summary.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 28-34 on your answer sheet.
In Europe, modern science emerged at the same time as the nation state. At first, the scientific language of choice remained 28…………… . It allowed scientists to communicate with other socially privileged thinkers while protecting their work from unwanted exploitation. Sometimes the desire to protect ideas seems to have been stronger than the desire to communicate them, particularly in the case of mathematicians and 29…………… . In Britain, moreover, scientists worried that English had neither the 30…………… nor the 31………… to express their ideas. This situation only changed after 1660 when scientists associated with the 32………… set about developing English. An early scientific journal fostered a new kind of writing based on short descriptions of specific experiments. Although English was then overtaken by 33……… , it developed again in the 19th century as a direct result of the 34……………….
Questions 35-37
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 3?
In boxes 35-37 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
35 There was strong competition between scientists in Renaissance Europe.
36 The most important scientific development of the Renaissance period was the discovery of magnetism.
37 In 17th-century Britain, leading thinkers combined their interest in science with an interest in how to express ideas.
Questions 38-40
Complete the table.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.
Science written in the first half of the 17th century
Language used Latin English
Type of science Original 38…………
Examples 39………… Encyclopaedias
Target audience International scholars 40…………, but socially wider
劍橋雅思閱讀5原文參考譯文(test2)
BAKELITE The birth of modern plastics
酚醛塑料——現(xiàn)代塑料的誕生
In 1907, Leo Hendrick Baekeland, a Belgian scientist working in New York, discovered and patented a revolutionary new synthetic material. His invention, which he named ‘Bakelite,’ was of enormous technological importance, and effectively launched the modern plastics industry.
1907年，比利時(shí)科學(xué)家Leo Hendrick Baekeland在紐約工作時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)了一種全新的合成材料，并申請(qǐng)了專(zhuān)利。他將自己的發(fā)明稱(chēng)作“酚醛塑料”，他的這一發(fā)明在技術(shù)上起到了極其重要的作用，并有效地催生了現(xiàn)代塑料業(yè)。
The term ‘plastic’ comes from the Greek plassein, meaning ‘to mould’. Some plastics are derived from natural sources, some are semi-synthetic (the result of chemical action on a natural substance), and some are entirely synthetic, that is, chemically engineered from the constituents of coal or oil. Some are ‘thermoplastic’, which means that, like candlewax, they melt when heated and can then be reshaped. Others are ‘thermosetting’: like eggs, they cannot revert to their original viscous state, and their shape is thus fixed for ever. Bakelite had the distinction of being the first totally synthetic thermosetting plastic.
“塑料(plastic) ”這一術(shù)語(yǔ)原于希臘詞plassein，意思就是“塑造”。某些塑料源自天然材料，某些塑料是半人工合成塑料，即由天然材料發(fā)生化學(xué)反應(yīng)形成的。還有的塑料是完全由人工合成的，也就是通過(guò)煤或布油的成分發(fā)生化學(xué)反應(yīng)形成的。有些塑料是熱塑性塑料，即像贈(zèng)燭一樣，受熱后形狀可以重塑。有些塑枳隄熱固性塑料，就像雞蛋一樣，受熱后無(wú)法再回到原來(lái)的黏滯狀態(tài)，是永久定型的。酚醛塑料是第一種完全由人工合成的熱固性塑料。
The history of today’s plastics begins with the discovery of a series of semi-synthetic thermoplastic materials in the mid-nineteenth century. The impetus behind the development of these early plastics was generated by a number of factors — immense technological progress in the domain of chemistry, coupled with wider cultural changes, and the pragmatic need to find acceptable substitutes for dwindling supplies of ‘luxury’ materials such as tortoiseshell and ivory.
當(dāng)代塑料的歷史源于19世紀(jì)中期對(duì)一系列半人工合成的熱塑材料的發(fā)現(xiàn)。早期研制這些塑料材料有多個(gè)動(dòng)因：化學(xué)領(lǐng)域的巨大的技術(shù)進(jìn)步，文化觀念的巨大轉(zhuǎn)變，以及等找合適的材料代替供應(yīng)量日益減少的奢侈原料(如玳瑁殼和象牙)的實(shí)際需要。
Baekeland’s interest in plastics began in 1885 when, as a young chemistry student in Belgium, he embarked on research into phenolic resins, the group of sticky substances produced when phenol (carbolic acid) combines with an aldehyde (a volatile fluid similar to alcohol). He soon abandoned the subject, however, only returning to it some years later. By 1905 he was a wealthy New Yorker, having recently made his fortune with the invention of a new photographic paper. While Baekeland had been busily amassing dollars, some advances had been made in the development of plastics. The years 1899 and 1900 had seen the patenting of the first semi-synthetic thermosetting material that could be manufactured on an industrial scale. In purely scientific terms, Baekeland’s major contribution to the field is not so much the actual discovery of the material to which he gave his name, but rather the method by which a reaction between phenol and formaldehyde could be controlled, thus making possible its preparation on a commercial basis. On 13 July 1907, Baekeland took out his famous patent describing this preparation, the essential features of which are still in use today.
Baekeland對(duì)塑料的興趣始于1885年，當(dāng)時(shí)他還是比利時(shí)的一個(gè)年輕的化學(xué)專(zhuān)業(yè)學(xué)生。 Baekeland開(kāi)始研究的是酚醛樹(shù)脂。酚醛樹(shù)脂是苯酚(石炭酸)和一種醛(與酒精類(lèi)似的揮發(fā)性液體)結(jié)合的粘稠狀的產(chǎn)物。不過(guò)，他很快就放棄了這一課題，直到多年以后才重新開(kāi)始這一研究。到了1905年，由于當(dāng)時(shí)剛發(fā)明了一種新型照相紙，他賺了些錢(qián)，成為了紐約市的一位富人。當(dāng)Baekeland忙著賺錢(qián)的時(shí)候，塑料研究方面取得了幾項(xiàng)重大進(jìn)展。1899年至1900 年間，第一種可以投入大規(guī)模工業(yè)生產(chǎn)的半人工合成熱塑材料獲得了專(zhuān)利。從純科學(xué)的角度講，Baelcelmid對(duì)塑料這一領(lǐng)域的貢獻(xiàn)并不在于他發(fā)現(xiàn)了酚醛塑料這種以他名字命名的材料，而是在于控制苯酚和甲醛反應(yīng)的方法，正是這種控制方法使酚醛塑料可以進(jìn)行大規(guī)模的商業(yè)制備。1907年7月13日，Baekeland獲得了描述這一制備過(guò)程的專(zhuān)利，其中主要步驟至今仍在使用。
The original patent outlined a three-stage process, in which phenol and formaldehyde (from wood or coal) were initially combined under vacuum inside a large egg-shaped kettle. The result was a resin known as Novalak which became soluble and malleable when heated. The resin was allowed to cool in shallow trays until it hardened, and then broken up and ground into powder. Other substances were then introduced: including fillers, such as woodflour, asbestos or cotton, which increase strength and moisture resistance, catalysts (substances to speed up the reaction between two chemicals without joining to either) and hexa, a compound of ammonia and formaldehyde which supplied the additional formaldehyde necessary to form a thermosetting resin. This resin was then left to cool and harden, and ground up a second time. The resulting granular powder was raw Bakelite, ready to be made into a vast range of manufactured objects. In the last stage, the heated Bakelite was poured into a hollow mould of the required shape and subjected to extreme heat and pressure, thereby ‘setting’ its form for life.
Baekeland的這個(gè)專(zhuān)利列舉了三個(gè)步驟：首先，苯釀和甲醛(從木材或煤中提取)在真空的卵形瓶中進(jìn)行反應(yīng)，生成一種叫Novalak的樹(shù)脂，這種樹(shù)脂可溶且受熱后有延展性。然后使這種樹(shù)脂在淺盤(pán)中冷卻、變硬，最后破碎，碾成粉末。接著加入其他的物質(zhì)，包括填料， 如木屑、石棉或棉花，以增加強(qiáng)度和防潮，還要加入催化劑(加速兩種化學(xué)物質(zhì)的反應(yīng)但自身在反應(yīng)后卻不發(fā)生變化的物質(zhì))和六元化合物(一種有氨和甲醛的化合物，為生成熱塑性樹(shù)脂提供必要的甲醛)。然后將得到的樹(shù)脂再次冷卻，使其變硬，重新碾成粉末。由此形成的顆粒狀粉末就是粗質(zhì)酚醛塑料，可以用來(lái)制造一系列的其他物品。在最后一步，將受熱的酚醛塑料澆進(jìn)所需形狀的中空模具中，施以高溫髙壓，使其永久定型。
The design of Bakelite objects, everything from earrings to television sets, was governed to a large extent by the technical requirements of the molding process. The object could not be designed so that it was locked into the mould and therefore difficult to extract. A common general rule was that objects should taper towards the deepest part of the mould, and if necessary the product was molded in separate pieces. Moulds had to be carefully designed so that the molten Bakelite would flow evenly and completely into the mould. Sharp corners proved impractical and were thus avoided, giving rise to the smooth, ‘streamlined’ style popular in the 1930s. The thickness of the walls of the mould was also crucial: thick walls took longer to cool and harden, a factor which had to be considered by the designer in order to make the most efficient use of machines.
酚醛塑料制成品形狀的設(shè)計(jì)，無(wú)論是耳環(huán)還是電視機(jī)外殼，都在很大程度上取決于塑形過(guò)程中的技術(shù)要求。設(shè)計(jì)要避免物品在塑形過(guò)程中卡在模具中取不出來(lái)。一個(gè)常用的規(guī)則就是物品越深人模具的部分應(yīng)越細(xì)。若有必要，則將物品分成幾部分，單獨(dú)塑形。模具的設(shè)計(jì)要十分小心，使熔化的酚醛塑料能平均地全部流人模具中。尖角不實(shí)用，因此要盡量避免， 由此也帶來(lái)了20世紀(jì)30年代光滑的流線型形狀的風(fēng)行。模具壁的厚度也很關(guān)鍵。模具壁越厚，冷卻硬化需要的時(shí)間就越長(zhǎng)。為了使(生產(chǎn))機(jī)器能得到高效的使用，模具厚度這個(gè)因素是設(shè)計(jì)者必須加以考慮的。
Baekeland’s invention, although treated with disdain in its early years, went on to enjoy an unparalleled popularity which lasted throughout the first half of the twentieth century. It became the wonder product of the new world of industrials expansion — ‘the material of a thousand uses’. Being both non-porous and heat-resistant, Bakelite kitchen goods were promoted as being germ-free and sterilisable. Electrical manufacturers seized on its insulating properties, and consumers everywhere relished its dazzling array of shades, delighted that they were now, at last, no longer restricted to the wood tones and drab browns of the preplastic era. It then fell from favour again during the 1950s, and was despised and destroyed in vast quantities. Recently, however, it has been experiencing something of a renaissance, with renewed demand for original Bakelite objects in the collectors’ marketplace, and museums, societies and dedicated individuals once again appreciating the style and originality of this innovative material.
盡管起初Baekeland的這一發(fā)明受到人們的鄙視，但后來(lái)卻受到前所未有的歡迎，在20世紀(jì)前半葉一直都很流行。這一發(fā)明成了工業(yè)擴(kuò)張時(shí)期的寵兒，被稱(chēng)為是“萬(wàn)能材料”。由于能防滲抗熱，用酚醛塑料制成的廚房用品都在宣傳中強(qiáng)調(diào)其無(wú)菌，可消毒的特點(diǎn)。電器制造商利用其絕緣的特性，消費(fèi)者則享受到其鮮艷奪目的色彩，慶幸自己不用再忍受“前塑料時(shí)代”只有木色和棕色的單調(diào)了。到了20世紀(jì)50年代，酚醛塑料又再度失去人們的寵愛(ài)，遭到人們的鄙視，被大量銷(xiāo)毀。而最近，酚醛塑料又好像重?zé)松鷻C(jī)，收藏品市場(chǎng)上對(duì)原來(lái)用酚醛塑料制成的物品需求又有所增加。博物館、各種社團(tuán)和熱衷于此的個(gè)人收藏者又開(kāi)始重新欣賞起這種創(chuàng)新型材料的風(fēng)格和其新穎別致的特點(diǎn)。
TEST 2 PASSAGE 2 參考譯文：
What’s so funny?
John McCrone reviews recent research on humor
什么這么好笑?
---John McCrone對(duì)近期幽默研究的回顧
The joke comes over the headphones: ‘Which side of a dog has the most hair? The left.’ No, not funny. Try again. ‘Which side of a dog has the most hair? The outside.’ Hah! The punchline is silly yet fitting, tempting a smile, even a laugh. Laughter has always struck people as deeply mysterious, perhaps pointless. The writer Arthur Koestler dubbed it the luxury reflex: ‘unique in that it serves no apparent biological purpose. ’
笑話從耳機(jī)中傳出來(lái)：“狗哪一邊的毛最多?左邊?！辈粚?duì)，不好笑，再猜?！肮纺囊贿吤疃?外邊?！惫?這句話的關(guān)鍵詞語(yǔ)有些荒.唐，卻很合適，令人宛爾，甚至捧腹大笑。笑一直讓人類(lèi)感到神秘，或許笑沒(méi)有什么意義。作家Arthur Koestler稱(chēng)笑為奢侈的反射作用，“笑的獨(dú)特之處就在于它沒(méi)有明顯的生物學(xué)目的。”
Theories about humour have an ancient pedigree. Plato expressed the idea that humor is simply a delighted feeling of superiority over others. Kant and Freud felt that joke-telling relies on building up a psychic tension which is safely punctured by the ludicrousness of the punchline. But most modern humor theorists have settled on some version of Aristotle’s belief that jokes are based on a reaction to or resolution of incongruity, when the punchline is either a nonsense or, though appearing silly, has a clever second meaning.
幽默理論有著悠久的歷史。柏拉圖認(rèn)為幽默就是一種因感到比別人優(yōu)越而體會(huì)到的快樂(lè)的感覺(jué)?？档潞透ヂ逡恋抡J(rèn)為講笑話則要營(yíng)造一種精神上的緊張氣氛，最后抖開(kāi)笑話的包袱，讓其滑稽有趣之處化解這種緊張氣氛。但是大多數(shù)當(dāng)代幽默理論家最終都采納了亞里士多德的觀點(diǎn)：笑話的基礎(chǔ)就是一種對(duì)不和諧情況的反應(yīng)或解釋?zhuān)@種情況下笑話的關(guān)鍵語(yǔ)句或者沒(méi)有什么特殊意義，或者貌似荒.唐卻聰明地隱含了第二層含義。
Graeme Ritchie, a computational linguist in Edinburgh, studies the linguistic structure of jokes in order to understand not only humor but language understanding and reasoning in machines. He says that while there is no single format for jokes, many revolve around a sudden and surprising conceptual shift. A comedian will present a situation followed by an unexpected interpretation that is also apt.
愛(ài)丁堡的計(jì)算語(yǔ)言學(xué)家Graeme Ritchie在研究笑話的語(yǔ)言結(jié)構(gòu)，不僅為了理解幽默，同時(shí)也為了了解機(jī)器的語(yǔ)言理解能力及推理能力他說(shuō)，盡管笑話沒(méi)有固定的模式，但是許多笑話都是圍繞某個(gè)出其不意的概念轉(zhuǎn)換展開(kāi)的。喜劇演員會(huì)描述一個(gè)情景，然后給出一個(gè)出人意料卻又恰如其分的解釋。
So even if a punchline sounds silly, the listener can see there is a clever semantic fit and that sudden mental ‘Aha!’ is the buzz that makes us laugh. Viewed from this angle, humor is just a form of creative insight, a sudden leap to a new perspective.
所以，即使笑話的關(guān)鍵語(yǔ)句聽(tīng)起來(lái)有些荒.唐，聽(tīng)眾卻可以意識(shí)到其中有一個(gè)機(jī)靈恰當(dāng)?shù)恼Z(yǔ)義，而心頭掠過(guò)的“對(duì)呀”這一恍然大悟的感嘆就是令我們發(fā)笑的信號(hào)。從這個(gè)角度看來(lái)，幽默就是一種創(chuàng)造性的洞察力，一種向新視角的突越。
However, there is another type of laughter, the laughter of social appeasement and it is important to understand this too. Play is a crucial part of development in most young mammals. Rats produce ultrasonic squeaks to prevent their scuffles turning nasty. Chimpanzees have a ‘play-face’ — a gaping expression accompanied by a panting ‘a(chǎn)h ah’ noise. In humans, these signals have mutated into smiles and laughs. Researchers believe social situations, rather than cognitive events such as jokes, trigger these instinctual markers of play or appeasement. People laugh on fairground rides or when tickled to flag a play situation, whether they feel amused or not.
但是還有另外一種笑，就是社會(huì)交往中緩解緊張局面的笑。理解這種笑也是很重要的。在許多幼小的哺乳動(dòng)物的發(fā)育當(dāng)中，游戲都是關(guān)鍵的一部分。老鼠會(huì)在廝打游玩時(shí)發(fā)出超聲波似的尖叫聲，防止廝打變成真的爭(zhēng)斗。黑猩猩有一種游戲表情，把嘴張得大大的，同時(shí)發(fā)出“啊、啊”的喘息聲。對(duì)于人類(lèi)來(lái)說(shuō)，這些信號(hào)都已轉(zhuǎn)化成為了微笑和大笑。研究人員認(rèn)為，激發(fā)這種本能的游戲信號(hào)或緩解緊張局面信號(hào)的因素不是笑話等認(rèn)知活動(dòng)，而是社會(huì)場(chǎng)景。人們玩旋轉(zhuǎn)木馬或被別人逗癢，開(kāi)始玩鬧時(shí)，無(wú)論是否感到好笑都會(huì)發(fā)出笑聲。
Both social and cognitive types of laughter tap into the same expressive machinery in our brains, the emotion and motor circuits that produce smiles and excited vocalisations. However, if cognitive laughter is the product of more general thought processes, it should result from more expansive brain activity.
無(wú)論是社交場(chǎng)合中的笑還是認(rèn)知活動(dòng)中的笑，都是我們大腦中的同一表達(dá)機(jī)制在起作用。情感和運(yùn)動(dòng)神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)令人微笑，并發(fā)出笑聲。但是，如果認(rèn)知活動(dòng)中的笑是更多元的思維過(guò)程的產(chǎn)物的話，那么這種笑應(yīng)當(dāng)源干更廣泛的大腦活動(dòng)。
Psychologist Vinod Goel investigated humour using the new technique of ‘single event’ functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). An MRI scanner uses magnetic fields and radio waves to track the changes in oxygenated blood that accompany mental activity. Until recently, MRI scanners needed several minutes of activity and so could not be used to track rapid thought processes such as comprehending a joke. New developments now allow half-second ‘snapshots’ of all sorts of reasoning and problem-solving activities.
心理學(xué)家Vinod Goel使用“單事件”官能磁共振成像這一新技術(shù)對(duì)幽默進(jìn)行調(diào)查研究，磁共振成像掃描儀使用磁場(chǎng)和無(wú)線電波跟蹤伴隨著心理活動(dòng)的充氧血液中發(fā)生的變化。直到最近，這種掃描議都還需要數(shù)分鐘的時(shí)間才能完成掃描，所以無(wú)法用于跟蹤理解笑話這樣迅速的思維過(guò)程。而新的進(jìn)展使所有的退理和解決問(wèn)題活動(dòng)都能在半秒鐘就快速成像。
Although Goel felt being inside a brain scanner was hardly the ideal place for appreciating a joke, he found evidence that understanding a joke involves a widespread mental shift. His scans showed that at the beginning of a joke the listener’s prefrontal cortex lit up, particularly the right prefrontal believed to be critical for problem solving. But there was also activity in the temporal lobes at the side of the head (consistent with attempts to rouse stored knowledge) and in many other brain areas. Then when the punchline arrived, a new area sprang to life — the orbital prefrontal cortex. This patch of brain tucked behind the orbits of the eyes is associated with evaluating information.
盡管Goel感到弄清了大腦內(nèi)部的活動(dòng)并不能完美地解決笑話的理解問(wèn)題，他卻發(fā)現(xiàn)理解笑話需要思維的大轉(zhuǎn)換。他的掃描儀顯示聽(tīng)笑話的人在笑話開(kāi)始時(shí)前額腦皮層會(huì)發(fā)亮，尤其是對(duì) 解決問(wèn)題起關(guān)鍵作用的右前額會(huì)發(fā)亮。但是在頭部側(cè)面的顳葉也會(huì)有活動(dòng)，表明在試圖激發(fā)已有的知識(shí)，大腦其他許多區(qū)域也有活動(dòng)。然后，當(dāng)包揪抖開(kāi)時(shí)，一個(gè)新的區(qū)域——前額眼眶腦皮層活躍起來(lái)。這個(gè)蜷縮在眼眶后邊的大腦區(qū)域是與處理信息相聯(lián)系的。
Making a rapid emotional assessment of the events of the moment is an extremely demanding job for the brain, animal or human. Energy and arousal levels may need to be retuned in the blink of an eye. These abrupt changes will produce either positive or negative feelings. The orbital cortex, the region that becomes active in Goel’s experiment, seems the best candidate for the site that feeds such feelings into higher-level thought processes, with its close connections to the brain’s sub-cortical arousal apparatus and centres of metabolic control.
無(wú)論人腦還是動(dòng)物的大腦，迅速對(duì)眼前的事件作出情感上的判斷都是一件非常艱巨的任務(wù)。能量和受激反應(yīng)的程度都要在一眨眼的功夫作出調(diào)整。這些突然的改變產(chǎn)生的感覺(jué)既有積極的又有消極的。在Goel實(shí)驗(yàn)中變得活躍的眼眶腦皮層區(qū)域由于與大腦的次腦皮層喚激結(jié)構(gòu)和新陳代謝控制中樞有著密切的聯(lián)系，似乎最有可能是將這些感覺(jué)轉(zhuǎn)入更高一層的思維過(guò)程的區(qū)域。
All warm-blooded animals make constant tiny adjustments in arousal in response to external events, but humans, who have developed a much more complicated internal life as a result of language, respond emotionally not only to their surroundings, but to their own thoughts. Whenever a sought-for answer snaps into place, there is a shudder of pleased recognition. Creative discovery being pleasurable, humans have learned to find ways of milking this natural response. The fact that jokes tap into our general evaluative machinery explains why the line between funny and disgusting, or funny and frightening, can be so fine. Whether a joke gives pleasure or pain depends on a person’s outlook.
所有的溫血?jiǎng)游飳?duì)外界變化的刺激都在不斷地作出細(xì)微的調(diào)整，但人類(lèi)由于擁有語(yǔ)言而有著更為復(fù)雜的內(nèi)心活動(dòng)，所以人類(lèi)不僅會(huì)對(duì)周?chē)沫h(huán)境產(chǎn)生感情上的反應(yīng)，而且會(huì)對(duì)自身的思維產(chǎn)生感情上的反應(yīng)。一旦某一苦苦尋找的答案出現(xiàn)了，人就會(huì)突然產(chǎn)生一種快樂(lè)的認(rèn)可感。由于創(chuàng)造性的發(fā)現(xiàn)是令人愉悅的，人類(lèi)學(xué)會(huì)了尋找獵取這種自然反應(yīng)的途徑。笑話可以進(jìn)人我們的一般評(píng)估機(jī)制，這就說(shuō)明有趣與惡心，或者有趣與恐怖之間的界限是十分微妙的。一個(gè)笑話給人帶來(lái)的是快樂(lè)還是痛苦取決于一個(gè)人的價(jià)值觀。
Humor may be a luxury, but the mechanism behind it is no evolutionary accident. As Peter Derks, a psychologist at William and Mary College in Virginia, says: ‘I like to think of humour as the distorted mirror of the mind. It’s creative, perceptual, analytical and lingual. If we can figure out how the mind processes humor, then we’ll have a pretty good handle on how it works in general.’
幽默可能算是一種奢侈品，但其背后的機(jī)制卻不是進(jìn)化過(guò)程中的偶然事件。正如弗吉尼亞州威廉—瑪麗學(xué)院的心理學(xué)家Peter Derks所說(shuō)：“我樂(lè)意將幽默想像成是思維的歪曲鏡，幽默是創(chuàng)造性的，感性的、與分析和語(yǔ)言有關(guān)的。如果我們能夠找出思維是如何處理幽默的，我們就能從整體上處理好其運(yùn)作機(jī)制?！?/p>
TEST 2 PASSAGE 3 參考譯文：
The Birth of Scientific English
科技英語(yǔ)的誕生
World science is dominated today by a small number of languages, including Japanese, German and French, but it is English which is probably the most popular global language of science. This is not just because of the importance of English-speaking countries such as the USA in scientific research; the scientists of many non-English-speaking countries find that they need to write their research papers in English to reach a wide international audience. Given the prominence of scientific English today, it may seem surprising that no one really knew how to write science in English before the 17th century. Before that, Latin was regarded as the lingua franca1 for European intellectuals.
雖然當(dāng)今世界科學(xué)為包括日語(yǔ)，德語(yǔ)和法語(yǔ)在內(nèi)的少數(shù)幾門(mén)語(yǔ)言所統(tǒng)治，但是英語(yǔ)可能才是科學(xué)界最普及的世界語(yǔ)言。這不僅僅是由于美國(guó)這樣的英語(yǔ)國(guó)家在科學(xué)研究中所起的重要作用，而且還是因?yàn)樵S多非英語(yǔ)國(guó)家的科學(xué)家發(fā)現(xiàn)為了擁有廣大的國(guó)際讀者群，他們需要用英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)研究論文。今天，科技英語(yǔ)的地位已經(jīng)顯得非常重要。因此，你可能很難想到在17世紀(jì)之前竟沒(méi)有人很淸楚在科學(xué)寫(xiě)作中如何使用英語(yǔ)，(事實(shí)上)在17世紀(jì)之前，被人們視為歐洲知識(shí)分子通用語(yǔ)言的是拉丁文。
The European Renaissance (c. 14th-16th century) is sometimes called the ‘revival of learning’, a time of renewed interest in the ‘lost knowledge’ of classical times. At the same time, however, scholars also began to test and extend this knowledge. The emergent nation states of Europe developed competitive interests in world exploration and the development of trade. Such expansion, which was to take the English language west to America and east to India, was supported by scientific developments such as the discovery of magnetism and hence the invention of the compass improvements in cartography and — perhaps the most important scientific revolution of them all — the new theories of astronomy and the movement of the Earth in relation to the planets and stars, developed by Copernicus (1473-1543).
約在14到16世紀(jì)間出現(xiàn)的歐洲“文藝復(fù)興”有時(shí)被稱(chēng)作是“知識(shí)復(fù)興”，在這一時(shí)期，人們對(duì)失落的古希臘羅馬時(shí)期的知識(shí)重新萌發(fā)了興趣。然而，與此同時(shí)，學(xué)者們也開(kāi)始檢驗(yàn)和擴(kuò)展這種知識(shí)。歐洲新興國(guó)家競(jìng)相進(jìn)行世界探險(xiǎn)、發(fā)展貿(mào)易，這些活動(dòng)的增加，使英語(yǔ)向西傳到了美洲，向東傳到了印度。這些活動(dòng)獲得了科學(xué)進(jìn)步的支持，如磁場(chǎng)的發(fā)現(xiàn)以及由此而發(fā)明的指南針，地圖制作技術(shù)的改進(jìn)，和其中或許最為重要的科學(xué)變革——由哥白尼(1473-1543)創(chuàng)立起來(lái)的地球與其他行星和恒星相對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)的理論和天文學(xué)的新理論。
England was one of the first countries where scientists adopted and publicised Copernican ideas with enthusiasm. Some of these scholars, including two with interests in language — John Wallis and John Wilkins — helped found the Royal Society in 1660 in order to promote empirical scientific research.
英格蘭是率先有科學(xué)家熱情地接受并宣傳哥白尼的思想的國(guó)家之一。這些學(xué)者當(dāng)中，有兩位對(duì)語(yǔ)言感興趣，他們分別是John Wallis和John Wilkins。1660年，這兩位學(xué)者幫助組建了英國(guó)皇家學(xué)會(huì)，來(lái)推廣實(shí)證性的科學(xué)研究。
Across Europe similar academies and societies arose, creating new national traditions of science. In the initial stages of the scientific revolution, most publications in the national languages were popular works, encyclopaedias, educational textbooks and translations. Original science was not done in English until the second half of the 17th century. For example, Newton published his mathematical treatise, known as the Principia, in Latin, but published his later work on the properties of light — Opticks — in English.
整個(gè)歐洲大陸上都陸續(xù)出現(xiàn)了類(lèi)似的研究院和協(xié)會(huì)，從而創(chuàng)立起了新的民族科學(xué)傳統(tǒng)。在科學(xué)革命的初始階段，大多以本國(guó)語(yǔ)言出版的出版物都是大眾讀物、百科全書(shū)、教科書(shū)和譯著。直到17世紀(jì)下半葉，英語(yǔ)才成為原創(chuàng)科學(xué)所使用的語(yǔ)言。例如，牛頓發(fā)表自己的數(shù)學(xué)論文《自然哲學(xué)的數(shù)學(xué)原理》時(shí)用的是拉丁文，但后來(lái)發(fā)表他有關(guān)光的特性的論文《光學(xué)》時(shí)，用的卻是英文。
There were several reasons why original science continued to be written in Latin. The first was simply a matter of audience. Latin was suitable for an international audience of scholars, whereas English reached a socially wider, but more local, audience. Hence, popular science was written in English.
原創(chuàng)科學(xué)一直使用拉丁文寫(xiě)作有多個(gè)原因。首先就是讀者的問(wèn)題。拉丁文適合廣大國(guó)際學(xué)者閱讀，而英語(yǔ)雖然可以被社會(huì)上更多的人所理解，但這些讀者更多的是英國(guó)國(guó)內(nèi)的讀者。因此，大眾科學(xué)是用英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)就的。
A second reason for writing in Latin may, perversely, have been a concern for secrecy. Open publication had dangers in putting into the public domain preliminary ideas which had not yet been fully exploited by their ‘a(chǎn)uthor’. This growing concern about intellectual property rights was a feature of the period — it reflected both the humanist notion of the individual, rational scientist who invents and discovers through private intellectual labour, and the growing connection between original science and commercial exploitation. There was something of a social distinction between ‘scholars and gentlemen’ who understood Latin, and men of trade who lacked a classical education. And in the mid-17th century it was common practice for mathematicians to keep their discoveries and proofs secret, by writing them in cipher, in obscure languages, or in private messages deposited in a sealed box with the Royal Society. Some scientists might have felt more comfortable with Latin precisely because its audience, though international, was socially restricted. Doctors clung the most keenly to Latin as an ‘insider language’.
第二個(gè)用拉丁文寫(xiě)作的原因或許顯得荒謬，那就是想要保守秘密。公開(kāi)出版著作可能會(huì)導(dǎo)致還未被原作者研究透徹的初步理念進(jìn)人公眾領(lǐng)域。對(duì)知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)的日益關(guān)注是那個(gè)時(shí)代的特征，這既反映出一種人文關(guān)懷，即對(duì)富于理性的科學(xué)家個(gè)人通過(guò)自己的腦力勞動(dòng)進(jìn)行發(fā)明和發(fā)現(xiàn)的關(guān)懷，又體現(xiàn)出原創(chuàng)科學(xué)與商業(yè)化利用間日益緊密的聯(lián)系。那些懂拉丁文的學(xué)者、紳士與沒(méi)有受過(guò)什么正規(guī)教育的商人是有社會(huì)差異的。17世紀(jì)中期的時(shí)候，數(shù)學(xué)家將自己的發(fā)現(xiàn)和例證用密碼、晦澀的語(yǔ)言來(lái)描述，或?qū)懗蓚€(gè)人的便條，封存在英國(guó)皇家學(xué)會(huì)的小盒子里，以保守秘密，這在當(dāng)時(shí)是司空見(jiàn)慣的事情。有些科學(xué)家更愿用拉丁文的原因可能就是因?yàn)楸M管拉丁文的讀者是世界性的，卻是非常有限的，社會(huì)上沒(méi)有多少人懂，醫(yī)生則對(duì)拉丁文萬(wàn)分鐘愛(ài)，將其視為“內(nèi)部人的語(yǔ)言”。
A third reason why the writing of original science in English was delayed may have been to do with the linguistic inadequacy of English in the early modern period. English was not well equipped to deal with scientific argument. First it lacked the necessary technical vocabulary. Second, it lacked the grammatical resources required to represent the world in an objective and impersonal way, and to discuss the relations, such as cause and effect, that might hold between complex and hypothetical entities.
原創(chuàng)科學(xué)遲遲未用英文書(shū)寫(xiě)的第三個(gè)原因可能與近代早期英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言還不發(fā)達(dá)有關(guān)。英語(yǔ)還不能很好的用于科學(xué)說(shuō)理。首先，英語(yǔ)缺乏必要的技術(shù)詞匯;其次，英語(yǔ)沒(méi)有必要的語(yǔ)法，無(wú)法客觀公正地表現(xiàn)世界，也無(wú)法討論各種關(guān)系，如復(fù)雜而又是假設(shè)性的各實(shí)體間可能存在的因果關(guān)系。
Fortunately, several members of the Royal Society possessed an interest in Language and became engaged in various linguistic projects. Although a proposal in 1664 to establish a committee for improving the English language came to little, the society’s members did a great deal to foster the publication of science in English and to encourage the development of a suitable writing style. Many members of the Royal Society also published monographs in English. One of the first was by Robert Hooke, the society’s first curator of experiments, who described his experiments with microscopes in Micrographia (1665). This work is largely narrative in style, based on a transcript of oral demonstrations and lectures.
幸運(yùn)的是，有幾名英國(guó)皇家學(xué)會(huì)的成員對(duì)語(yǔ)言感興趣，并開(kāi)始從事各種語(yǔ)言學(xué)方面的研究工作。盡管1664年關(guān)于建立改善英語(yǔ)委員會(huì)的提議沒(méi)有什么結(jié)果，但是英國(guó)皇家學(xué)會(huì)的成員卻做了大量的工作，促進(jìn)用英語(yǔ)出版科學(xué)著作，鼓勵(lì)恰當(dāng)寫(xiě)作風(fēng)格的形成。許多英國(guó)皇家學(xué)會(huì)的成員也用英文發(fā)表了學(xué)術(shù)專(zhuān)著，首批成員包括學(xué)會(huì)首任實(shí)驗(yàn)管理員羅伯特·胡克，他1665年出版了《顯微圖集》，書(shū)中描述了他的顯微鏡實(shí)驗(yàn)。這本著作以口頭講解示范和講座的文字記錄稿為藍(lán)本，大體上是記敘文風(fēng)格。
In 1665 a new scientific journal, Philosophical Transactions, was inaugurated. Perhaps the first international English-language scientific journal, it encouraged a new genre of scientific writing, that of short, focused accounts of particular experiments.
1665年，一份新的科學(xué)雜志《哲學(xué)匯刊》創(chuàng)刊。這或許算得上是首份英文國(guó)際科學(xué)期刊。該期刊鼓勵(lì)新的科學(xué)寫(xiě)作風(fēng)格：簡(jiǎn)潔、重點(diǎn)地描述某一特定實(shí)驗(yàn)。
The 17th century was thus a formative period in the establishment of scientific English. In the following century much of this momentum was lost as German established itself as the leading European language of science. It is estimated that by the end of the 18th century 401 German scientific journals had been established as opposed to 96 in France and 50 in England. However, in the 19th century scientific English again enjoyed substantial lexical growth as the industrial revolution created the need for new technical vocabulary, and new, specialized, professional societies were instituted to promote and publish in the new disciplines.
因此，17世紀(jì)算是科技英語(yǔ)形成的發(fā)展階段。在接下來(lái)的一個(gè)世紀(jì)中，科技英語(yǔ)的這種發(fā)展勢(shì)頭卻消失了，因?yàn)榈抡Z(yǔ)成為了歐洲科學(xué)領(lǐng)域的主導(dǎo)語(yǔ)言。據(jù)估計(jì)，到了18世紀(jì)末，德語(yǔ)科學(xué)雜志有401份，與之相對(duì)，法語(yǔ)科學(xué)雜志有96份，英語(yǔ)科學(xué)雜志有50份，盡管如此，到了19世紀(jì)，伴隨著工業(yè)革命對(duì)新技術(shù)詞匯的需要，科技英語(yǔ)在詞匯上重新有了大幅度的增長(zhǎng)。同時(shí)，新的專(zhuān)業(yè)學(xué)會(huì)也紛紛建立起來(lái)，促進(jìn)新學(xué)科的發(fā)展和著作的出版。
劍橋雅思閱讀5原文解析(test2)
Test 2 Passage 1
Question 1
答案： candlewax
關(guān)鍵詞：similar/melt under heat
定位原文: 第2段倒數(shù)第2句“...like candlewax, they melt when heated...”
解題思路：只要能夠在第二段中找到定位詞melt和heated，很快就能夠找到similar的同義詞like。因此答案應(yīng)該選擇candlewax。
Question 2
答案： synthetic
關(guān)鍵詞： bakelite/both...and.../themosetting
定位原文: 第2段最后1句“Bakelite had the distinction of being…”
解題思路: distinction和first對(duì)應(yīng)題目中的unique，而thermoseting一詞前面只有synthetic這個(gè)詞可以選擇，即使不認(rèn)識(shí)，也可以填上去。
Question 3
答案： chemistry
關(guān)鍵詞：the nineteenth century/advances/field/ivory
定位原文: 第3段第2句“The impetus…”
解題思路: 選用nineteenth century和ivory兩個(gè)特殊詞找到答案定位，然后再仔細(xì)尋找great advances的對(duì)應(yīng)詞immense technological progress，隨后馬上可以看到field的對(duì)應(yīng)詞domain。因此這道題目應(yīng)該填chemistry。
Question 4
答案： Novalak
關(guān)鍵詞: avoid overcrowded centre
定位原文: D段最后1句“Instead…”
解題思路: instead是一個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)折連接詞，后面的觀點(diǎn)與前者剛好相反。上一句說(shuō) pushing everyone into the city centre was not the best approach，剛好證明我們應(yīng)該避免造成一個(gè)過(guò)度擁擠的市中心。
Question 5
答案： fillers
關(guān)鍵詞： cotton / asbestos / catalysts
定位原文: 第5段第4句“Other…”
解題思路: 此處需要注意答案并不是woodflour，因?yàn)槲闹姓f(shuō) fillers such as woodflour, asbestos or cotton，后三者是作者舉出的filler的具體例子，故不選。
Question 6
答案： hexa
關(guān)鍵詞：ammonia/formaldehyde
定位原文: 第5段第4句的后半句“hexa, a compound…”
解題思路: 此題目位置稍有顛倒，但是只要明白compound是混合物的意思就不難得到答案是hexa。
Question 7
答案： raw
關(guān)鍵詞： resin/cool/harden/break up/powder/bakelite
定位原文: 第5段第5句“This resin…”
解題思路: 第五段先找到cool和harden，很快看到Bakelite，前面的詞是raw。
Question 8
答案： pressure
關(guān)鍵詞：mould /intense heat /cool
定位原文: 第5段最后1句“In the last stage…”
解題思路: extreme 和 intense 屬于同義表達(dá)，空處和intense heat形成并列關(guān)系，答案很容易得出是pressure。
Question 9 & Question 10
答案：B C
關(guān)鍵詞： design/Bakelite
定位原文: 第6段第2句“The object…”第6段第4句“Moulds had to be…”
解題思路: 第2句對(duì)應(yīng)C選項(xiàng)，could not locked into 和題目的remove from 屬于同義表達(dá);第4句對(duì)應(yīng)B選項(xiàng)，fill 和 flow completely into 也屬于同義表達(dá)。
Question 11
答案: TRUE
關(guān)鍵詞：based on / the same
定位原文: 第1段第2句和第4段最后1句
解題思路: 文中l(wèi)aunch 一詞實(shí)際上指的是1907年獲得專(zhuān)利的技術(shù)開(kāi)啟了現(xiàn)代塑料工業(yè)的大門(mén)。所以答案應(yīng)該是TRUE。這一點(diǎn)在最后一段中也能得到印證。
Question 12
答案： FALSE
關(guān)鍵詞：welcome
定位原文: 第7段第1句和倒數(shù)第2句
解題思路: 文中明確提到在其剛剛誕生的時(shí)候，酚醛塑料頗為大眾所不屑，并不是立即就受到歡迎。下面的文章又提到 it then fell from favour again during the 1950s. immediately 一詞過(guò)于絕對(duì)，一般在題目中出現(xiàn)該詞選FALSE。
Question 13
答案：FALSE
關(guān)鍵詞：colours
定位原文: 第7段第4句“...delighted that they were now, at last, no longer restricted to the wood tones and drab browns of the preplastic era.”
解題思路: 這句話告訴我們?cè)谒芰习l(fā)展的初級(jí)階段，人們只能買(mǎi)到木色和棕色的產(chǎn)品，但是隨著技術(shù)的進(jìn)步，人們不再限于這兩種單調(diào)的顏色了。only 一詞過(guò)于絕對(duì)，一般在題目中出現(xiàn)了該詞選FALSE。
Test 2 Passage 2
Question 14
答案：FALSE
關(guān)鍵詞：Arthur Koestler
定位原文: 第1段最后1句“The writer….”
解題思路: 文中已經(jīng)明確指出“笑的獨(dú)特之處就在干它沒(méi)有明顯的生物學(xué)目的”，而題目卻一定要說(shuō)它從生物學(xué)的很多方面而言都很重要，本題是抵觸型的False。
Question 15
答案：NOT GIVEN
關(guān)鍵詞： Plato
定位原文: 第2段第2句“Plato expressed…”
解題思路: 這句話應(yīng)該翻譯為“柏拉圖認(rèn)為幽默是因感覺(jué)比別人優(yōu)越而體會(huì)到的快樂(lè)感覺(jué)”而并沒(méi)有具體提到在哪方面比別人優(yōu)越。題目將這個(gè)范圍縮小到了在智力上比別人優(yōu)越，明顯是一道完全未提及型的NOT GIVEN。
Question 16
答案： TRUE
關(guān)鍵詞：Kant
定位原文: 第2段第3句“Kant and Freud felt…”
解題思路: 康德和弗洛伊德認(rèn)為講笑話時(shí)需要營(yíng)造一種精神上的緊張氣氛，最后抖開(kāi)笑話的包袱，讓其滑稽有趣之處化解這種緊張氣氛。tension 等同于energy，safely punctured 等同于controlled release。本題是一道典型的同義詞對(duì)應(yīng)型的TRUE。
Question 17
答案：FALSE
關(guān)鍵詞：Aristotle
定位原文: 第2段最后1句“But most modem humour…”
解題思路: 但是大多數(shù)當(dāng)代幽默理論家最終都采納了類(lèi)似亞里士多德的觀點(diǎn)……settle on決定;選定，題目中的ignore就和這個(gè)詞組抵觸，反義詞抵觸型FALSE。
Question 18
答案：TRUE
關(guān)鍵詞：Graeme Ritchie
定位原文: 第3段第1句“Graeme Ritchie,…, studies the linguistic…”
解題思路: Graeme Ritchie在研究笑話的語(yǔ)言結(jié)構(gòu)，不僅為了理解幽默，同時(shí)也為了了解機(jī)器的語(yǔ)言理解能力及推理能力。此題的關(guān)鍵是理解artificial intelligence 一詞。所謂A.I.，其實(shí)就是指機(jī)器可以具有理解語(yǔ)言和邏輯推理的能力。
Question 19
答案：NOT GIVEN
關(guān)鍵詞：comedians
定位原文: 第3段最后1句話“A comedian will present a…”
解題思路: 喜劇演員會(huì)描述一個(gè)情景，然后給出一個(gè)出人意料卻又恰如其分的解釋。這里并未提到喜劇演員是否會(huì)將個(gè)人情景作為笑料。
Question 20
答案： TRUE
關(guān)鍵詞：chimpanzees
定位原文: 第5段第4句“Chimpanzees have a…”
解題思路: 黑貍猩有一種游戲表情，把嘴張得大大的，同時(shí)發(fā)出“啊、啊”的喘息聲。文中這句話正好表明了黑猩猩在玩耍的時(shí)候會(huì)發(fā)出某種聲音，與題目一致，故選擇TRUE。
Question 21
答案： problem solving
關(guān)鍵詞： area/ activated/ right prefrontal/orbital prefrontal
定位原文: 第8段第2句“...listener’s prefrontal cortex Lit up, particularly the right prefrontal…”
解題思路: 問(wèn)題要求填出right prefrontal cortex與何種思維活動(dòng)有關(guān)，所以答案為problem solving。
Question 22
答案： temporal lobes
關(guān)鍵詞：too
定位原文: 第8段第3句
解題思路: 題目中的active對(duì)應(yīng)文中的activity。當(dāng)然，實(shí)際上這道題目只要能將題目中的too和文章中的also相對(duì)應(yīng)就能解出來(lái)了。答案是temporal lobes。
Question 23
答案： evaluating information
關(guān)鍵詞： orbital prefrontal cortex
定位原文: 第8段最后兩句
解題思路: 題目中的involved with相當(dāng)于文章中的associated with,所以答案應(yīng)該選擇evaluating information。
Question 24
答案： C
關(guān)鍵詞： brain / most difficult
定位原文: 第9段第1句
解題思路: 其中extremely demanding就相當(dāng)于24題中的most difficult，而a rapid emotional assessment就等同于respond instantly to。
Question 25
答案： A
關(guān)鍵詞：language
定位原文: 第10段第1句 “..., but humans, who have developed a much…”
解題思路: 定位句正好和A選項(xiàng)相呼應(yīng)
Question 26
答案： F
關(guān)鍵詞： individual
定位原文: 第10段最后1句
解題思路: outlook指“觀念，觀點(diǎn)”，等同于F答案中的subjective views 。
Question 27
答案：D
關(guān)鍵詞： Peter Derks
定位原文：第11段最后1句
解題思路：mind等同于答案D中的brain, works則等同于operation 。
Test 2 Passage 3
Question 28
答案： Latin
關(guān)鍵詞：Europe/nation state/At first
定位原文: 文中第1、5、6段
解題思路: 在首段末句，作者提到了 Before that, Latin was regarded as the lingua franca for European intellectuals. 我們隱約可以感覺(jué)到拉丁文在學(xué)術(shù)界的盛行，但這還不足以讓我們確定此空就要填Latin一詞。在第五和第六段中，作者提到了學(xué)術(shù)界流行拉丁文的原因。其中第六段開(kāi)頭一句提到A second reason for writing in Latin may, perversely, have a concern for secrecy. 這正好就等同題目中28空后面的那句話，所以我們椎測(cè)答案應(yīng)該填寫(xiě)Latin一詞。
Question 29
答案： doctors
關(guān)鍵詞： Mathematicians
定位原文: 第6段中最后3句
解題思路: 題目中告訴我們：有的時(shí)候保護(hù)個(gè)人觀點(diǎn)的欲望遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)大于與人分享觀點(diǎn)的欲望，特別是對(duì)于數(shù)學(xué)家和___。在這里應(yīng)該填上一個(gè)表示職業(yè)的名詞。而第六段中在mathematician之后，只有一個(gè)表示職業(yè)的名詞，那就是doctors。故答案應(yīng)該填 doctors。
Question 30 and Question 31
答案： technical vocabulary grammatical resources (in either order)
關(guān)鍵詞： Britain/ English/ neither... nor...
定位原文: 第7段第3句“First, it lacked…”
解題思路: 首先用English將此題定位在第七段中，這一段提到了英文為什么遲遲未被用作學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)言的原因。從題目上我們看出這兩個(gè)原因應(yīng)該是并列的，進(jìn)而找到了first和second，然后就選出了答案technical vocabulary和grammatical resources。
Question 32
答案： Royal Society
關(guān)鍵詞：after 1660/ associated with
定位原文: 第8段第1句“... Several members of the Royal Society... ”
解題思路: 按照順序原則，此題答案應(yīng)該在第八段出現(xiàn)。在這一段當(dāng)中作者不斷提到皇家學(xué)會(huì)的科學(xué)家如何致力于發(fā)展英語(yǔ)作為一種學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)言，并且舉出了具體的例子。所以答案應(yīng)該填Royal Society。
Question 33
答案： German
關(guān)鍵詞：journal/English/overtaken
定位原文: 第10段第2句“...as German established itself as…”
解題思路: 第十段中提到德語(yǔ)壓倒英語(yǔ)成為主要的科學(xué)語(yǔ)言。establish...as...確立為……。
Question 34
答案： industrial revolution
關(guān)鍵詞：19th century
定位原文: 第10段最后1句
解題思路: 是工業(yè)革命促進(jìn)了科技英語(yǔ)的復(fù)興，所以此題答案應(yīng)該填industrial revolution。
Question 35
答案： NOT GIVEN
關(guān)鍵詞：Renaissance Europe
定位原文: 第2段內(nèi)容
解題思路: 在此段當(dāng)中并沒(méi)有提到文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期歐洲的科學(xué)家們是如何激烈競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的，是一道完全未提及型NOT GIVEN。
Question 36
答案：FALSE
關(guān)鍵詞：magnetism
定位原文: 第2段第4句“ ...was supported by scientific developments such as the discovery of magnetism, improvements…”
解題思路: 這句話表明文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期最重大的發(fā)現(xiàn)也許是天文學(xué)方面的新理論，這就和題目當(dāng)中磁場(chǎng)的發(fā)現(xiàn)相抵觸了，故應(yīng)該選擇FALSE。
Question 37
答案：TRUE
關(guān)鍵詞：17th-century Britain
定位原文: 第3段內(nèi)容
解題思路: 根據(jù)T/F/NG題目一般每段考査一題、按順序出題的原則，我們將這道題目定位在第三段，而England一詞也印證了我們的定位。但是如果想在這一段直接找到與題目相對(duì)應(yīng)的詞語(yǔ)卻非常困難。本段只是描到英格蘭是率先有科學(xué)家熱情地接受并宣傳哥白尼的思想的國(guó)家統(tǒng)一。這些學(xué)者當(dāng)中，有兩位對(duì)語(yǔ)言感興趣，他們分別是1660年，這兩位學(xué)者幫助組建了英國(guó)皇家學(xué)會(huì)，來(lái)推廣實(shí)證性的科學(xué)研究。所以我們可以推斷出本題目為T(mén)RUE。
Question 38
答案： popular
關(guān)鍵詞：original
定位原文: 第5段最后1句
解題思路: 此處要填一個(gè)與original相對(duì)的詞，故popular最合適。
Question 39
答案： Principia
關(guān)鍵詞: encyclopedia
定位原文: 第4段最后1句
解題思路: 通過(guò)旁邊的縱欄我們了解到英文是用來(lái)書(shū)寫(xiě)大百科全書(shū)的，而橫欄又告訴我們此處需要一個(gè)例子，于是我們需要填寫(xiě)的就是用拉丁文書(shū)寫(xiě)的一個(gè)范例，所以填Principia。
Question 40
答案： local
關(guān)鍵詞：audience
定位原文: 第5段第3句
解題思路: 通過(guò)橫欄的audience一詞我們找到了第五段。拉丁文的目標(biāo)讀者是國(guó)際學(xué)者，而英文的目標(biāo)讀者則更廣泛，也更本地化。
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