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托福閱讀原文

In the late sixteenth century andinto the seventeenth, Europe continued the growth that had lifted it out of therelatively less prosperous medieval period (from the mid 400s to the late1400s). Among thekeyfactors behind this growth were increasedagricultural productivity and an expansion of trade.Populations cannot grow unlessthe rural economy can produce enough additional food to feed more people.During the sixteenth century, farmers brought more land into cultivation at theexpense of forests and fens (low-lying wetlands). Dutch land reclamation in theNetherlands in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries provides the mostspectacular example of the expansion of farmland: the Dutch reclaimed more than36.000 acres from 1590 to 1615 alone.Much of the potential forEuropean economic development lay in what at first glance would seem to havebeen only sleepy villages. Such villages, however, generally lay in regions ofrelatively advanced agricultural production, permitting not only the survivalof peasants but also the accumulation of an agricultural surplus forinvestment. They had access to urban merchants, markets, and trade routes.Increased agricultural productionin turn facilitated rural industry, an intrinsic part of the expansion ofindustry. Woolens and textile manufacturers, in particular, utilized ruralcottage (in-home) production, which took advantage of cheap and plentiful rurallabor. In the German states, the ravages of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)further moved textile production into the countryside. Members of poor peasantfamilies spun or wove cloth and linens at home for scant remuneration in anattempt to supplementmeagerfamily income.More extended trading networksalso helped develop Europe's economy in this period.English and Dutch shipscarrying rye from the Baltic states reached Spain and Portugal. Populationgrowth generated an expansion of small-scale manufacturing, particularly ofhandicrafts, textiles, and metal production in England, Flanders, parts ofnorthern Italy, the southwestern German states, and parts of Spain. Only ironsmelting and mining required marshaling a significant amount of capital (wealthinvested to create more wealth).The development of banking andother financial services contributed to the expansion of trade. By the middleof the sixteenth century, financiers and traders commonly accepted bills ofexchange in place of gold or silver for other goods. Bills of exchange, whichhad their origins in medieval Italy, were promissory notes (written promises topay a specified amount of money by a certain date) that could be sold to thirdparties. In this way, they provided credit. At mid-century, an Antwerpfinancier only slightly exaggerated when he claimed, “0ne can no more tradewithout bills of exchange than sail without water." Merchants no longerhad to carry gold and silver over long, dangerous journeys. An Amsterdammerchant purchasing soap from a merchant in Marseille could go to an exchangerand pay the exchanger the equivalent sum in guilders, the Dutch currency. Theexchanger would then send a bill of exchange to a colleague in Marseille,authorizing the colleague to pay the Marseille merchant in the merchant's owncurrency after the actual exchange of goods had taken place.Bills of exchange contributed tothe development of banks, as exchangers began to provide loans. Not untilthe eighteenth century, however, did such banks as the Bank ofAmsterdam and the Bank of England begin to provide capital for businessinvestment. Their principal function was to provide funds for the state.The rapid expansion in internationaltrade also benefitted from an infusion of capital, stemming largely from goldand silver brought by Spanish vessels from the Americas. This capital financedthe production of goods, storage, trade, and even credit across Europe andoverseas. Moreover an increased credit supply was generated by investments andloans by bankers and wealthy merchants to states and by joint-stockpartnerships—an English innovation(the first major company began in1600). Unlike short-term financial cooperation between investors for a singlecommercial undertaking, joint-stock companies provided permanent funding ofcapital by drawing on the investments of merchants and other investors whopurchased shares in the company.

托福閱讀試題

1.According to paragraph 1, what was trueof Europe during the medieval period?A. Agricultural productivity declined.B.There was relatively little economicgrowth.C.The general level of prosperity declined.D.Foreign trade began to play an importantrole in the economy.2.The word key in the passage(Paragraph1)is closest in meaning toA.historicalB. manyC. importantD.hidden3.According to paragraph 2, one effect ofthe desire to increase food production was thatA. land was cultivated in a different wayB.more farmers were neededC.the rural economy was weakenedD. forests and wetlands were used forfarming4.According to paragraph 3, what was onereason villages had such great economic potential?A.Villages were located in regions whereagricultural production was relatively advanced.B.Villages were relatively small inpopulation and size compared with urban areas.C.Some village inhabitants made investmentsin industrial development.D.Village inhabitants established markets withintheir villages.5.Paragraph 4 supports the idea thatincreased agricultural production was important for the expansion of industryprimarily because itA.increased the number of available workersin rural areasB.provided new types of raw materials foruse by industryC. resulted in an improvement in the healthof the rural cottage workers used by manufacturersD. helped repair some of the ravages of theThirty Years’ War6.The word “meager” in thepassage(Paragraph 4)is closest in meaning toA.very necessaryB. very lowC.traditionalD.primary7.Why does the author mention that “Englishand Dutch ships carrying rye from the Baltic states reached Spain andPortugal”(Paragraph 5)?A.To suggest that England and theNetherlands were the two most important trading nations in seventeenth-centuryEuropeB.To suggest how extensive tradingrelations wereC.To contrast the importance ofagricultural products with manufactured productsD.To argue that shipping introduced a rangeof new products8.By including the quotation in paragraph 6by the financier from Antwerp, the author is emphasizing thatA.sailing was an important aspect of theeconomyB. increasing the number of water routesmade trade possibleC.bills of exchange were necessary forsuccessful tradingD.financiers often exaggerated the need forbills of exchange9.According to paragraph 6, merchants wereable to avoid the risk of carrying large amounts of gold and silver byA.using third parties in Marseille to buygoods for themB. doing all their business by using DutchcurrencyC. paying for their purchases through billsof exchangeD. waiting to pay for goods until the goodshad been delivered10.According to paragraph 7, until theeighteenth century, it was the principal function of which of the following toprovide funds for the state?A.Bills of exchangeB.Exchangers who took loansC. BanksD. Business investment11.The phrase “an English innovation” inthe passage(Paragraph 8)is closest in meaning toA.a new development introduced by theEnglishB.an arrangement found only in EnglandC. a type of agreement negotiated inEnglishD.a type of partnership based on Englishlaw12.According to paragraph 8, each of thefollowing was a source of funds used to finance economic expansion EXCEPTA.groups of investors engaged in short-termfinancial cooperationB. the stateC.wealthy merchantsD.joint-stock companies13. Look at the four squares [■] thatindicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Wherewould the sentence best fit? They could also avoid having to identify andassess the value of a wide variety of coins issued in many different places.The development of banking and otherfinancial services contributed to the expansion of trade. By the middle of thesixteenth century, financiers and traders commonly accepted bills of exchangein place of gold or silver for other goods. Bills of exchange, which had theirorigins in medieval Italy, were promissory notes (written promises to pay aspecified amount of money by a certain date) that could be sold to thirdparties. In this way, they provided credit. ■【A】Atmid-century, an Antwerp financier only slightly exaggerated when he claimed, “0ne can nomore trade without bills of exchange than sail without water." ■【B】Merchants nolonger had to carry gold and silver over long, dangerous journeys. ■【C】An Amsterdammerchant purchasing soap from a merchant in Marseille could go to an exchangerand pay the exchanger the equivalent sum in guilders, the Dutch currency. ■【D】Theexchanger would then send a bill of exchange to a colleague in Marseille,authorizing the colleague to pay the Marseille merchant in the merchant's owncurrency after the actual exchange of goods had taken place.14. Directions: An introductory sentencefor a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary byselecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in thepassage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideasthat not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. Thisquestion is worth 2 points.In late sixteenth-and earlyseventeenth-century Europe, increased agricultural production and the expansionof trade were important in economic growth.A.Bringing more land under cultivationproduced enough food to create surpluses for trade and investment as well asfor supporting the larger populations that led to the growth of rural industry.B.Most rural villages established an arrangementwith a nearby urban center that enabled villagers to take advantage of urbanmarkets to sell any handicrafts they produced.C. Increases in population and theexpansion of trade led to increased manufacturing, much of it small-scale incharacter but some requiring significant capital investment.D.Increased capital was required for theproduction of goods, for storage, for trade, and for the provision of creditthroughout of Europe as well as distant markets overseas.E.Bills of exchange were invented inmedieval Italy but became less important as banks began to provide loans formerchants.F.The expansion of trade was facilitated bydevelopments in banking and financial services and benefitted from the hugeinflux of capital in the form of gold silver from the Americas.

托福閱讀答案

1.以medieval period做關鍵詞定位至第一句，說medievalperiod不那么prosperous繁榮，但如果只看這句的話很容易錯選答案C，C的decline叫做減少，也就是說C說medieval時期prosperity下降了，但原文說不prosperous，是一種低的狀態(tài)，不是下降的趨勢，所以C錯;而B的經(jīng)濟幾乎沒有增長是less prosperous的同義替換，正確;A與C錯的原因類似;D沒說2.key眾所周知的意思是鑰匙，當然還有關鍵的意思，所以important正確。前文說歐洲經(jīng)濟開始增長，然后說發(fā)展的什么因素是blabla，后面特別指出的原因肯定是相對比較重要的，所以important正確。句子只給出了兩個原因，many不對;historical歷史的和hidden完全不靠譜3.以increase foodproduction做關鍵詞定位至第一句，但問的是影響，所以答案應該是下一句。說人們開墾更多土地，以森林和濕地為代價，所以答案是D。A原文沒說以不同方式開墾，錯;B的farmers沒有相關信息;C的rural economy沒有信息4.以economic potential做關鍵詞定位至第一句，但第一句中的at first glance和第二句的however都說明有用的信息在第二句，說這些村子的agriculture是advanced，所以答案是A，B/C/D都沒說5.以expansion ofindustry做關鍵詞定位至第一句，但第一句只是陳述了一個事實，有用的信息在第二句，說那些manufacturers利用了大量廉價的rural labor，所以答案是A，B/C/D都沒說6.meager貧乏的，不足的，瘦弱的，所以verylow是正確答案。原句說很多窮人紡線或者織布賺補貼，來貼補什么樣的家庭收入，肯定是少才需要貼補的，所以是very low，A必要和D基本都不能用紡線來補貼;原文沒有時間概念，所以B傳統(tǒng)的不對7.修辭目的題，整個句子是一個細節(jié)，所以看前一句，也就是本段的中心句，說不斷擴展的貿(mào)易網(wǎng)絡有助于當時歐洲經(jīng)濟發(fā)展，緊接著就給出了荷蘭和英國的船到了西班牙和葡萄牙，用來證明貿(mào)易的擴展，所以答案是B，其他的都不靠譜8.修辭目的題，先以Antewerp做關鍵詞定位至第五句，原句整個就是一個細節(jié)，看前一句，前一句的信息過少，所以再往前看，就找到答案，說匯票是一種可以轉(zhuǎn)賣給第三方的約定票據(jù)，答案是C，匯票的必要性，當然也可以看第一句，說銀行及其他金融服務助推貿(mào)易的擴展，同樣能選出答案9.以gold or silver做關鍵詞定位至第二句，說financiers和traders接受匯票來替代金銀，只有C提到了匯票bills ofexchange，所以答案是C，其他都沒說10.以funds，state和principlefunction做關鍵詞定位至最后一句，說他們的最主要作用是給國家提供資金，因為有their，所以往前看，前句說直到十八世紀銀行才給business investment提供錢，然后就說之前都是給國家提供錢的，their指的是銀行，所以答案C正確11.an English innovation本意指英國人的發(fā)明，即使從本意看，B/C/D也不靠譜，而且破折號之后解釋之前的內(nèi)容，之前說joint-stock partnership，合股，之后的括號又對這一現(xiàn)象進行了解釋，說明這是一個以前沒有的新東西，所以A正確12.EXCEPT題，排除法。A的short-termfinancial cooperation對應最后一句，正確，不選;B好像對應第三句，但原文說銀行家和富商貸款給state，state的錢是從別人那借的，沒法促進發(fā)展，所以B錯，選;C和D都對應原文第三句，正確，不選13.四個過渡點，分別是名詞coins，manydifferent places，代詞they和副詞also，coins與原文倒數(shù)第二句的currency貨幣同義替換，many different places與原文倒數(shù)第二句的Amsterdam和Marseille對應，所以C或者D正確;此外，coins還可以與倒數(shù)第三句的coins and silver對應，所以B或者C正確;而且they also avoid說明之前他們已經(jīng)避免了一件事，剛好對應倒數(shù)第三句的no longer have to carry gold and silver，所以C正確14.bringing選項對應原文第二段第一句，正確most選項原文沒說，不選increases in選項對應原文第四段第一句，正確increased capital選項MS對應第八段第二句，但原文說capital促進了blabla的發(fā)展，沒說blabla的發(fā)展需要資金，所以錯，不選bills選項與第六段第二局說反，不選the expansion選項對應原文第六段和第八段的首句，正確

托福閱讀譯文

【1】在16世紀末至17世紀初，歐洲經(jīng)濟度過了低迷發(fā)展的中世紀(公元5世紀中至公元15世紀末)，繼續(xù)保持增長拉動經(jīng)濟增長最關鍵的因素是農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)力的提高和貿(mào)易規(guī)模的擴大。

【2】如果農(nóng)村經(jīng)濟不能生產(chǎn)足夠的糧食，人口增長就不可能實現(xiàn)。在16世紀，農(nóng)民們以伐木開荒為代價，不斷開墾耕地。荷蘭的土地復墾無疑是16到17世紀中最引人注目的：單單是在1590年到1615年間，荷蘭就開墾了36 000多英畝土地。

【3】歐洲經(jīng)濟增長的巨大潛力存在于那些第一眼看上去默默無聞的小鎮(zhèn)。然而，這些鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)大多地處農(nóng)業(yè)相對發(fā)達的地區(qū)，不僅農(nóng)民賴此生存，用于投資的富余農(nóng)產(chǎn)品也得以積累。這些鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)位置得天獨厚，毗鄰城市商人，市場以及貿(mào)易線路。

【4】農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)的發(fā)展反過來又促進了工業(yè)中的部分——農(nóng)村工業(yè)的發(fā)展。尤其是羊毛和紡織制造商們，他們利用農(nóng)村大量廉價的勞動力來進行農(nóng)舍家庭式生產(chǎn)。在德國，“三十年戰(zhàn)爭 ”造成嚴重破壞進一步促使紡織業(yè)向鄉(xiāng)村遷移。為了貼補本已經(jīng)微薄的家庭收入，貧困潦倒的農(nóng)民們通過在家紡織衣料或亞麻來換取少量報酬。

【5】不斷擴大的貿(mào)易網(wǎng)絡也促進了這段時期歐洲經(jīng)濟的增長。英國和荷蘭的商船從波羅的海各國運載著黑麥到西班牙和葡萄牙來售賣。在英國、佛南德斯、意大利北部、德國西南部以及西班牙部分地區(qū)，人口的增長促進了小規(guī)模制造業(yè)的發(fā)展，尤其是手工藝品、紡織品和金屬制品。只有煉鐵和采礦業(yè)需要投入大量資本(投資財富以創(chuàng)造更多財富)。

【6】銀行和其他金融服務的發(fā)展促進了貿(mào)易增長。到16世紀中葉，從事金融和貿(mào)易的人員已經(jīng)基本接受了使用匯票代替金銀來進行交易。匯票始于中世紀意大利，，是一種可以和第三方進行交易的期票(其上注明在約定時間內(nèi)支付特定數(shù)額的錢)。就這樣，這些匯票具有了信貸功能。在該世紀中期，一位安特衛(wèi)普的金融家夸張地說：“沒有匯票，貿(mào)易就無法進行，就像沒有根本無法航行?！鄙倘嗽僖膊挥脭y帶金銀踏上漫長危險的旅途了。阿姆斯特丹商人要在馬賽購買肥皂，，可以去找到貨幣兌換商用等值的荷蘭貨幣——荷蘭盾去兌換。然后貨幣兌換商會將匯票給馬賽的同事，授權(quán)他憑此匯票在實體交易完成之后以當?shù)刎泿胖Ц督o馬賽人。

【7】隨著貨幣兌換商開始提供貸款服務，匯票促進了銀行業(yè)的發(fā)展。然而，直到十八世紀，諸如阿姆斯特丹銀行和英格蘭銀行才開始提供商業(yè)投資貸款業(yè)務。它們的首要功能是為政府提供資金。

【8】西班牙商船從美洲帶來大量金銀，資本的注入促進國際貿(mào)易快速發(fā)展。這些資本為商品的生產(chǎn)、存儲、交易提供了資金甚至向是全歐洲乃至海外提供貸款。此外，銀行和富商向政府提供投資和接待加上英國的一項革新——股份制公司(第一家主要的股份制公司始于1600年)都增加了貸款的供應。與由投資家組成的以單個商業(yè)項目為目的的短期財團不同，股份制公司通過商人和其他投資者購買公司股份所帶來的投資提供長期的投資。

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