托福閱讀的常見文章結(jié)構(gòu)
了解托福閱讀的常見文章結(jié)構(gòu)對(duì)我們做題是非常有幫助的，為了方便大家備考，下面小編給大家?guī)硗懈ｉ喿x的常見文章結(jié)構(gòu)，來看看吧!
托福閱讀的常見文章結(jié)構(gòu)
托福考試作為一門專業(yè)衡量語言能力的測試，無論是閱讀還是聽力，所涉及的篇章都是屬于學(xué)術(shù)性的，尤其是閱讀這一部分，根據(jù)ETS在《新托?？荚嚬俜街改稀分兴f，閱讀文章均摘錄于大學(xué)教科書，一般是對(duì)某一學(xué)科或主題的介紹性內(nèi)容，主要目的是評(píng)估考生對(duì)"學(xué)術(shù)性文章"的理解程度。而從ETS十大題型的設(shè)置來看，閱讀考試考察的是由最基本的詞匯到句子，再到文章邏輯關(guān)系以及段落理解，最后還通過小結(jié)題和圖表題考察對(duì)全文的掌握。對(duì)于很多考生來說，最后一大題也就是文章小結(jié)和表格題最為頭疼，因?yàn)樗吹膬?nèi)容實(shí)在太多，在有限的時(shí)間限制之下實(shí)在是毫無頭緒，只能亂選一氣。但其實(shí)只要我們搞清楚托福閱讀文章常見的結(jié)構(gòu)，完全可以在很短時(shí)間內(nèi)抓住文章脈絡(luò)拿下最后一道大題。
所有的閱讀文章，無論文章背景是什么，結(jié)構(gòu)無非會(huì)分為以下幾種，《新托?？荚嚬俜街改稀飞习淹懈Ｎ恼陆Y(jié)構(gòu)類型大致分為四類：classification(分類)，comparison/contrast(比較)，cause/effect(因果)，problem/solution(問題與解決方法)。
Classification指的是文章對(duì)某一個(gè)大的話題進(jìn)行分類討論，這類文章結(jié)構(gòu)非常清晰，能夠讓我們一目了然。以TPO17的《Symbiotic Relationships》為例，文章討論的大的話題是symbiotic relationship(共生關(guān)系)，然后再第一段就直接寫明有3種symbiotic relationships，然后接下來分段論述3種共生關(guān)系分別有什么樣的特點(diǎn)：paragrph2-3-- parasitism(寄生), paragraph4--commensalism(片利共生), paragraph5--mutualism(互利共生),最后再用很簡短的一句話稍作總結(jié)。這樣的結(jié)構(gòu)對(duì)于我們做小結(jié)題非常有利，因?yàn)閟ummary通常就是把所分的幾個(gè)小類分別用一個(gè)選項(xiàng)概括出來，比如這篇文章的最后一題3個(gè)正確選項(xiàng)：Parasitic relationships involve the interplay of aggression by the parasite and resistance and adaptation by the host對(duì)應(yīng)文章第二段講述parasitism部分的內(nèi)容;Mutualism is unique among symbiotic relationships in that it benefits both partners involved in the relationship對(duì)應(yīng)文章第五段講述mutualism部分內(nèi)容;The rarity of commensal relationships stems from the difficulty of finding relationships that benefit one species without affecting the other對(duì)應(yīng)文章第4段講述commensalism部分內(nèi)容。把握住了文章的3種共生關(guān)系的主要特點(diǎn)，最后一題也就手到擒來了。 同樣屬于分類結(jié)構(gòu)的文章還有TPO13的《Types of Social Groups》、TPO16的《Planets of Our Solar Systems》、TPO20的《Fossil Preservation》等等，讀文章時(shí)注意在筆記上幾下各個(gè)類型的主要特點(diǎn)，在面對(duì)最后一題時(shí)即便時(shí)間有限也可以從容不迫。
Comparison/contrast指的是文章中含有兩種相關(guān)事物，將這兩種事物在各個(gè)方面進(jìn)行了一系列的比較，其實(shí)整體結(jié)構(gòu)類似于上面所說的分類。比較典型的文章例如TPO12的《Water in the desert》，文中主要介紹了沙漠中的水，將其中的河流分為兩大類：Endogenous Rivers(內(nèi)流河)和Exogenous Rivers(外流河)，然后分別論述這兩大類的主要特征—內(nèi)流河起源于沙漠內(nèi)部，往往來源于地下水，容易干涸;外流河只是途經(jīng)沙漠，往往是一些比較大的河流等等。在碰到這種類型的文章時(shí)，往往最后會(huì)出到表格題，需要總結(jié)兩個(gè)比較對(duì)象的特征。表格題區(qū)別于小結(jié)題的一大特點(diǎn)是，選項(xiàng)中包含的細(xì)節(jié)比較多，不同于小結(jié)題的選項(xiàng)高度概括，表格題本質(zhì)上其實(shí)是基于全文的細(xì)節(jié)題，需要看的內(nèi)容比較多，所以在前面看文章時(shí)需要記好筆記，將文章主要行文結(jié)構(gòu)弄清楚，這兩類事物本質(zhì)區(qū)別是什么?分別是在哪些段落講述了各自的特征?確定好大的框架，最后做題時(shí)進(jìn)行定位不至于慌亂。類似的文章還有官方指南的《Applied Arts and Fine Arts》，《Artisan and Industrialization》，《Nineteenth-Century Politics In the United States》 ，《Early Cinema》以及TPO7的《Ancient Rome and Greece》，TPO30的《The Pace of Evolutionary Change》等等。
Cause/effect又稱現(xiàn)象解釋型文章，所指的是一篇文章討論的話題是一個(gè)現(xiàn)象，就這個(gè)現(xiàn)象的形成原因或是產(chǎn)生的結(jié)果花了大量篇幅進(jìn)行介紹。最為典型的一篇文章就是官方指南《Desert Formation》，文章主要就是在介紹沙漠化形成的各種原因：植被減少，氣候干燥，人類活動(dòng)等等，最后文章小結(jié)也就是將這些原因當(dāng)中比較重要的幾點(diǎn)總結(jié)出來，所以概括時(shí)主要關(guān)注每個(gè)段落的topic sentence即可。 官方指南《Green Icebergs》，《The Expression of Emotions》以及TPO16的《Trade and Ancient Middle East》等都屬于此類文章。
Problem/solution解決方法類文章指的是文章一開頭就拋出一個(gè)問題，而主題內(nèi)容是在就這個(gè)問題進(jìn)行探討給出答案。此類文章最明顯的特征就是在開頭段背景引入部分會(huì)引入問題，然后下面給出幾種可能的解釋。例如TPO17《Europe's Early Sea Trade with Asia》這篇文章，開頭段講東西方人都想要彼此進(jìn)行貿(mào)易，但是苦于陸上交通被阻隔掉了，因此需要海上貿(mào)易，可是又存在一系列的問題。接著文章就具體描述存在的問題以及是如何克服掉這些阻礙的：航船的改變，導(dǎo)航儀的改進(jìn)，海上行為規(guī)則的制定等等。主要問題介紹完了整篇文章也就差不多了，而最后的小結(jié)題總結(jié)出來的三個(gè)選項(xiàng)也是跟這些主要問題相關(guān)。與此類似的，TPO1的《The Origins of Theater》研究的問題是究竟戲院的起源是什么以及為什么它會(huì)發(fā)展起來，TPO6的《Infantile Amnesia》討論的問題是嬰兒為什么記不得自己三歲之前的事情，TPO18《The Mystery of Yawning》探究的是人為什么會(huì)打哈欠。類似的文章還是比較多的，做小結(jié)題時(shí)需要概括的就是給出的幾種主要答案。
在平時(shí)做題過程中，考生需要學(xué)會(huì)對(duì)所做的每一篇文章進(jìn)行總結(jié)，快速識(shí)別對(duì)應(yīng)的文章類型，可以幫助我們?cè)谧疃痰臅r(shí)間內(nèi)抓住文章的主要內(nèi)容，從而提高最后一題的正確率。
托福閱讀的十大出題原則是什么
一、列舉和并列句
列舉指的是： FirstFirst,……Second,……Third,……等逐條列出。;等逐條列出。并列句是指： A ， B and C ，即逐項(xiàng)列出。它們共同的特征是列出二點(diǎn)或三點(diǎn)以上的條目。該類型語言點(diǎn)?？嫉念}型是“細(xì)節(jié)性問題”，主要有兩種：
1. Which 題型
該題型只要求從并列的三頂中選一項(xiàng)作為答案，其它條目與題目無關(guān)。這種情況下，往往題目的答案出自最后一個(gè)選項(xiàng) 。
2 . Except 題型
該題型俗稱“三缺一”題型，即題目 4 個(gè)選項(xiàng)中有三個(gè)符合文章內(nèi)容，剩下一個(gè)不符合，題目便是要求選出這個(gè)不符合文章內(nèi)容的選項(xiàng)。例如： All of the following are mentioned as types of evidence concerning handedness EXCEPT ???
這種題型只適合于考并列、列舉句，這是因?yàn)樗笃淙齻€(gè)選項(xiàng)一定是文章中出現(xiàn)的，也就是并列或列舉之處。利用這一特點(diǎn).我們?cè)谧x文章的時(shí)候就可多留意，如看到并列、列舉句，可預(yù)想其有可能被考到;如發(fā)現(xiàn)題目中有“三缺一”題型，則應(yīng)到并列、列舉處找答案。
二、否定及轉(zhuǎn)折句
否定句是指帶有 NO 或 NOT ， NEVER 等否定詞的句子，而轉(zhuǎn)折句則指帶有 HOWEVER ， BUT 或 RATHER 等關(guān)聯(lián)詞引導(dǎo)的句子，它們可以用下面的句型說明： A is not B ， as C ， but is D 。對(duì)于以上的句型常出“推斷性問題”。
三、舉例句
句中由 as 或 such as ， for example 等引導(dǎo)的短語或句子為舉例句，常考“推斷性問題”和“細(xì)節(jié)性問題”。上面句型中的 as C 為插入的舉例句。
四、數(shù)字與年代
文中的數(shù)字、年代、日期等常常是出題者注意的考題點(diǎn)，如 1996 年 10 月第 48 題。
五、最高級(jí)及絕對(duì)性詞匯
文章中若出現(xiàn) must ， all ， only ， anyone ， always ， never 等絕對(duì)性詞匯或 first ， most beautiful 等最高級(jí)詞匯，往往是考題要點(diǎn)，一般出“細(xì)節(jié)性題目”。這是因?yàn)樗鼈兌加幸粋€(gè)共同的特點(diǎn)，那就是 概念絕對(duì) ， 答案唯一 ，無論是出題還是做題，不會(huì)產(chǎn)出歧義和疑問，因此很容易出題，答案絕對(duì)正確。相反地，如果文章中出現(xiàn)相對(duì)性的詞匯、例如 Some of the people chose red hats,some chose green hats,and others blue ones. 其中 some 為相對(duì)性詞匯，如果我們出這樣一道題： What color hats did some people choose? 那么就沒有唯一正確的答案，因?yàn)橛锌赡転?red,green 或 blue ，給評(píng)卷帶來困難。
六、比較級(jí)及比喻
如果文中含有 more than 或 as ??? as ， like ( a fly )等句型，則為比較級(jí)或比喻句結(jié)構(gòu)，往往也是考題點(diǎn)，一般出“推斷性題目”。
七、同位語及插入語
文章中帶有由 that is ， i.e. ， or 等詞匯引導(dǎo)的名詞詞組，放在一個(gè)名詞后面，為同位語;插入語是指副詞、不定式、分詞、從句等結(jié)構(gòu)故在句首，句中或句尾，不做句子成分，但修飾整個(gè)句子、表達(dá)作者感情的語法結(jié)構(gòu)。 這些用逗號(hào)隔開的持殊結(jié)構(gòu)往往也是考查的重點(diǎn)，一般會(huì)出“細(xì)節(jié)性題目”。
八、因果句
句中若有如下結(jié)構(gòu)或詞匯的稱為因果句：
(1) 因果連詞： because ， since ， for ， as ， therefore ， so ， consequently 等
(2) 表示因果的動(dòng)詞： cause ， result in ， originate from 等;
(3) 表示因果的名詞： base, basis, result,consequence 等，這些因果句都是指明某兩個(gè)事件之間因果關(guān)系的，尤為出題者所青陳.因?yàn)橥ㄟ^出題可以考查文中兩個(gè)事件內(nèi)在的因果關(guān)系。此種句型一般出“推斷性問題”。
九、段落句
文章各段第一句 ( 段首句 ) 和末段員后一句 ( 文尾句 ) 都是十分重要的地方，往往是文章作者表達(dá)中思想，進(jìn)行總結(jié)綜述的地方，因此常出： (1) 主題性問題 (2) 細(xì)節(jié)性問題 (3) 結(jié)構(gòu)性問題。
十、特殊標(biāo)點(diǎn)
有一些特殊標(biāo)點(diǎn)的含義也屬于考查范圍，它們是：
(1) 破折號(hào)，表示解釋.考細(xì)節(jié)性問題;
(2) 括號(hào)，表示解釋.考細(xì)節(jié)性問題;
(3) 冒號(hào)，一股同上，有時(shí)冒號(hào)也表示列舉，則考“ EXCEPT ”題目;
(4) 引號(hào)，表示引用，考細(xì)節(jié)性問題：
(5) 驚嘆號(hào)，表示作者感情，考態(tài)度性問題。
綜上所述，我們可以利用上面所介紹的考題點(diǎn)，作為“路標(biāo)”，迅速地指引我們找到正確答案;同時(shí)作為出題規(guī)律，檢驗(yàn)自己所選答案的正確性。
托福閱讀真題1
From their inception, most rural neighborhoods in colonial North America included at least one carpenter, joiner, sawyer, and cooper in woodworking; a weaver and a tailor for clothing production; a tanner, currier, and cordwainer (shoemaker) for fabricating leather objects; and a blacksmith for metalwork. Where stone was the local building material, a mason was sure to appear on the list of people who paid taxes. With only an apprentice as an assistant, the rural artisan provided the neighborhood with common goods from furniture to shoes to farm equipment in exchange for cash or for goods in kind from the customer's field, pasture, or dairy. Sometimes artisans transformed material provided by the customer; wove cloth of yarn spun at the farm from the wool of the family sheep; made chairs or tables from wood cut in the customer's own woodlot; produced shoes or leather breeches from cow, deer, or sheepskin tanned on the farm.
Like their farming neighbors, rural artisans were part of an economy scene, by one historian, as an orchestra conducted by nature. Some tasks could not be done in the winter, other had to be put off during harvest time, and still others waited on raw materials that were only produced seasonally. As the days grew shorter, shop hours kept pace, since few artisans could afford enough artificial light to continue work when the Sun went down. To the best of their ability, colonial artisans tried to keep their shops as efficient as possible and to regularize their schedules and methods of production for the best return on their investment in time, tools, and materials. While it is pleasant to imagine a woodworker, for example, carefully matching lumber, joining a chest together without resort to nails or glue, and applying all thought and energy to carving beautiful designs on the finished piece, the time required was not justified unless the customer was willing to pay extra for the quality — and few in rural areas were. Artisans, therefore, often found it necessary to employ as many shortcuts and economics as possible while still producing satisfactory products.
1. What aspect of rural colonial North America does the passage mainly discuss?
(A) Farming practices
(B) The work of artisans
(C) The character of rural neighborhoods
(D) Types of furniture that were popular
2. The word inception in line 1 is closest in meaning to
(A) investigation
(B) location
(C) beginning
(D) records
3. The word fabricating in line 3 is closest in meaning to
(A) constructing
(B) altering
(C) selecting
(D) demonstrating
4. It can be inferred from the passage that the use of artificial light in colonial times was
(A) especially helpful to woodworkers
(B) popular in rural areas
(C) continuous in winter
(D) expensive
5. Why did colonial artisans want to regularize their schedules and methods (line 18)?
(A) to enable them to produce high quality products
(B) to enable them to duplicate an item many times
(C) to impress their customers
(D) to keep expenses low
6. The phrase resort to in line 21 is closest in meaning to
(A) protecting with
(B) moving toward
(C) manufacturing
(D) using
7. The word few' in lines 23 refers to
(A) woodworkers
(B) finished pieces
(C) customers
(D) chests
8. It can be inferred that the artisans referred to in the passage usually produced products that
were
(A) simple
(B) delicate
(C) beautifully decorated
(D) exceptionally long-lasting
PASSAGE 61 BCADD DCA
托福閱讀真題2
Molting is one of the most involved processes of a bird's annual life cycle. Notwithstanding preening and constant care, the marvelously intricate structure of a bird's feather inevitably wears out. All adult birds molt their feathers at least once a year, and upon close observation, one can recognize the frayed, ragged appearance of feathers that are nearing the end of their useful life. Two distinct processes are involved in molting. The first step is when the old, worn feather is dropped, or shed. The second is when a new feather grows in its place. When each feather has been shed and replaced, then the molt can be said to be complete. This, however, is an abstraction that often does not happen: incomplete, overlapping, and arrested molts are quite common.
Molt requires that a bird find and process enough protein to rebuild approximately one-third of its body weight. It is not surprising that a bird in heavy molt often seems listless and unwell. But far from being random, molt is controlled by strong evolutionary forces that have established an optimal time and duration. Generally, molt occurs at the time of least stress on the bird. Many songbirds, for instance, molt in late summer, when the hard work of breeding is done but the weather is still warm and food still plentiful. This is why the woods in late summer often seem so quiet, when compared with the exuberant choruses of spring.
Molt of the flight feathers is the most highly organized part of the process. Some species, for example, begin by dropping the outermost primary feathers on each side (to retain balance in the air) and wait until the replacement feathers are about one-third grown before shedding the next outermost, and so on. Others always start with the innermost primary feathers and work outward. Yet other species begin in the middle and work outward on both sides. Most ducks shed their wing feathers at once, and remain flightless for two or three weeks while the replacement feathers grow.
1. The passage mainly discusses how
(A) birds prepare for breeding
(B) bird feathers differ from species
(C) birds shed and replace their feathers
(D) birds are affected by seasonal changes
2. The word Notwithstanding in line 2 is closest in meaning to
(A) despite
(B) because of
(C) instead of
(D) regarding
3. The word intricate in line 2 is closest in meaning to
(A) regular
(B) complex
(C) interesting
(D) important
4. The word random in line 12 is closest in meaning to
(A) unfortunate
(B) unusual
(C) unobservable
(D) unpredictable
5. The word optimal in line 13 is closest in meaning to
(A) slow
(B) frequent
(C) best
(D) early
6. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a reason that songbirds molt in the late summer?
(A) Fewer predators are in the woods.
(B) The weathers are still warm.
(C) The songbirds have finished breeding.
(D) Food is still available.
7. Some birds that are molting maintain balance during flight by
(A) constantly preening and caring for their remaining feathers
(B) dropping flight feathers on both sides at the same time
(C) adjusting the angle of their flight to compensate for lost feathers
(D) only losing one-third of their feathers
8. The word Others in line 21 refers to
(A) ducks
(B) sides
(C) species
(D) flight feathers
9. The author discusses ducks in order to provide an example of birds that
(A) grow replacement feathers that are very long
(B) shed all their wing feathers at one time
(C) keep their innermost feathers
(D) shed their outermost feathers first
10. It can be inferred from the discussion about ducks that the molting of their flight feathers
takes
(A) a year
(B) a season
(C) several months
(D) a few weeks
PASSAGE 62 CABDC ABCBD
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