托福閱讀文章類型有哪些
托福閱讀文章類型有哪些?這一定是大家非常關(guān)心的話題,掌握了這些知識對于選擇備考材料是非常有幫助的。為此,小編為大家整理了托福閱讀文章類型的相關(guān)資料,我們不妨來了解一下吧!
托福閱讀文章類型有哪些
一、托福閱讀文章出處以及選材范圍
作為一項語言能力測試,托福閱讀備考是考查考生能否具備足夠的語言交流能力,以期在北美完成正常的學習任務(wù)和研究工作。因此,其閱讀文章原型大都選自美國大學本科生使用的教材,以達到最佳的模擬測試效果。文章的選材范圍極其廣泛,涉及有自然科學包括:天文學、地質(zhì)學、生物學、氣象學等;人文科學包括:藝術(shù)美學、考古學、語言學、文學等;社會科學包括:政治學、經(jīng)濟學、教育學、人類學等交叉學科。
從選材范圍可見:托福閱讀的文章內(nèi)容對考生知識存儲量的廣度有一定的要求,但同時考慮到考生來自于不同的專業(yè),對于其他學科往往不具備專業(yè)素質(zhì),因此為了遵守考試公平性原則,文章均不對其所述及的學科做過多深入的探討。
二、托福閱讀的文章類型及篇章段落結(jié)構(gòu)
根據(jù)托福閱讀文章的出處及選材范圍,我們可以將這些文章歸為三類:說明文、議論文、史實文。三者合一統(tǒng)稱為:學術(shù)性文章。這種類型的文章,必須具備說理性特質(zhì),即行文邏輯大都遵循著相對固定的結(jié)構(gòu)模式。
一句話:托福閱讀文章的篇章結(jié)構(gòu)有規(guī)律可尋,段落組成有原則可守:
1、學術(shù)性文章的篇章結(jié)構(gòu):
在學術(shù)性文章中,一般需要具備三個組成部分:
(1)Topic 話題:即文章的主角是什么。比如講解某個科學理論、研究某種社會現(xiàn)象,探討某個歷史事件;
在托福文章中,這種導(dǎo)入性信息往往出現(xiàn)在篇首位置??忌梢愿鶕?jù)篇首段信息對整篇文章所要討論的核心內(nèi)容有所了解;
(2)Aspects 方面:即將篇首的話題延伸拓展為若干個方面進行闡述說明。若話題為某個科學論點,則方面可能分為若干個支持論據(jù);若話題為某種自然現(xiàn)象,則方面可能分為若干個內(nèi)外成因;若話題為某個歷史事件,則方面為幾段發(fā)展時期;
在托福閱讀文章中,往往依照各個方面之間的層次關(guān)系,將各個方面拆分為若干個獨立的自然段落,共同組成行文主體;
(3)Attitude態(tài)度:即文章的作者對于所討論話題持怎樣的態(tài)度。或是積極肯定,或是消極否定,或是保持中立。
在托福閱讀文章中,態(tài)度往往是被較多的淡化甚至有可能省略不提。
Topic話題 + Aspects方面 + Attitude態(tài)度,這三要素加起來就是標準學術(shù)論文體的"T+A+A篇章結(jié)構(gòu)"。托福文章大都遵循這種結(jié)構(gòu),考生通過篇首段落信息來把控整個文章話題及大致討論方向,再抓住文章的各個段落主旨,便可洞悉整個文章脈絡(luò)和邏輯結(jié)構(gòu)。
2、學術(shù)性文章的段落結(jié)構(gòu)
學術(shù)性文章的自然段落,一般需要具備兩個組成部分:
(1) Topic Sentence 主旨句:表達段落的主旨,即本段想要表達的核心內(nèi)容是什么;
(2) Detail 細節(jié):為了詳細說明段落中心含義,所羅列的相關(guān)支持內(nèi)容,即本段通過哪些例證來闡明主旨句。
Topic Sentence主旨句 + Detail細節(jié),這兩個要素加起來就是標準學術(shù)論文體的"TS+D段落結(jié)構(gòu)"。托福文章段落大都遵循這種結(jié)構(gòu),考生通過段落主旨句就可以把握該段的中心含義。
總結(jié):當考生們了解了這種TAA篇章結(jié)構(gòu)和TS+D段落結(jié)構(gòu)的行文規(guī)律后,對文章框架的把握就會做到心里有數(shù),更有利于提高閱讀速度和定位有效信息的準確度。
三、托福閱讀考試的量化指標
新托福閱讀考試分為無閱讀加試和有閱讀加試兩種。
無閱讀加試的情況下,共有3篇文章,分為兩個部分,第一部分為獨立的1篇文章,考試時間為20分鐘;第二部分為兩篇文章,考試時間為40分鐘,期間這兩篇文章的考試時間可以自由分配??傮w考試時間為兩部分之和,即60分鐘。
有閱讀加試的情況下,在已有的3篇文章及60分鐘答題時間的基礎(chǔ)上,再加兩篇文章,并作為一個部分,共計40分鐘,加試期間的兩篇文章的考試時間依然可以自由分配。總體考試時間為三部分之和,即100分鐘。
托福閱讀背景材料:美國文學
美國文學(American Literature)
美國文學的歷史不長,它幾乎是和美國自由資本主義同時出現(xiàn),較少受到封建貴族文化的束縛。美國早期人口稀少,有大片未開發(fā)的土地,為個人理想的實現(xiàn)提供了很大的可能性。美國人民富于民主自由精神,個人主義、個性解放的觀念較為強烈,這在文學中有突出的反映。美國又是一個多民族的國家,移民不斷涌入,各自帶來了本民族的文化,這決定了美國文學風格的多樣性和龐雜性。美國文學發(fā)展的過程就是不斷吸取、融化各民族文學特點的過程。許多美國作家來自社會下層,這使得美國文學生活氣息和平民色彩都比較濃厚,總的特點是開朗、豪放。內(nèi)容龐雜與色彩鮮明是美國文學的另一特點。個性自由與自我克制、清教主義與實用主義、激進與反動、反叛和順從、高雅與庸俗、高級趣味與低級趣味、深刻與膚淺、積極進取與玩世不恭、明快與晦澀、犀利的諷刺與陰郁的幽默、精心雕琢與粗制濫造、對人類命運的思考和探索與對_的病態(tài)追求等傾向,不僅可以同時并存,而且形成強烈的對照。從來沒有一種潮流或傾向能夠在一個時期內(nèi)一統(tǒng)美國文學的天下。美國作家敏感、好奇,往往是一個浪潮未落,另一浪潮又起。作家們永遠處在探索和試驗的過程之中。20世紀以來,許多文學潮流起源于美國,給世界文學同時帶來積極的與消極的影響。
殖民地時期
印第安人的文化歐洲人發(fā)現(xiàn)新大陸的時候,北美洲的土著居民印第安人處于原始公社制度各種不同的階段。印第安人在向大自然的斗爭中創(chuàng)造了自己的文化,主要是民間口頭創(chuàng)作,包括神話傳說和英雄傳說。由于他們沒有文字,這些傳說后來才得以整理問世,啟發(fā)了后世美國作家的靈感。早期移民的文化移民剛到新大陸時忙于生存斗爭,所以開始時文學發(fā)展比較緩慢。最早發(fā)表的關(guān)于北美的作品是游記、日記之類的文字。作者都是英國人。英國殖民地建立之后,統(tǒng)治者利用宗教,主要是清教主義作為控制殖民地思想意識的主要手段,因此許多出版物是關(guān)于神學的研究。著名的作家有科頓·馬瑟(1663-1728)和喬納森。愛德華茲(1703-1758)等。隨著工業(yè)、貿(mào)易和民族意識的增漲,宗教自由的呼聲提高,請教主義的神權(quán)統(tǒng)治走向衰亡,為人本主義與自由民主等民族獨立的意識所代替。診歌創(chuàng)作北美出版的第一部詩集《海灣圣詩》是以民歌形式寫成的圣詩。邁克爾·威格爾斯沃思的詩全是解釋加爾文教的教義,成了宗教性的普及讀物。女詩人安妮·布拉茲特里特寫的也是宗教生活,不過多少以世俗的筆調(diào)抒寫婦女的心情。生前只發(fā)表過挽詩的牧師愛德華·泰勒反映了嚴格的清教主義的衰落。在這些詩人身上,英國的影響也是明顯的,布拉茲特里特得益于斯賓塞,泰勒的詩里看得出約翰·多思和喬治·赫伯特的影響。
獨立革命至南北戰(zhàn)爭時期
美國民族文學形成于獨立革命時期。這場斗爭產(chǎn)生大量的革命詩歌,并且造就了美國頭一批重要的散文家和詩人。政治上的獨立促進文化上的獨立。戰(zhàn)爭結(jié)束之后,美國作家的作品陸續(xù)增多,逐漸擺脫英國文學的壟斷局面。年輕的民主共和國使人們滿懷信心,并吸引著舊世界更多的人們奔向新的大陸。這樣的社會條件促使19世紀上半葉的文學創(chuàng)作具有浪漫主義的色彩。作家們吸取歐洲浪漫派文學的精神,對美國的歷史、傳說和現(xiàn)實生活進行描繪,美利堅民族內(nèi)容逐漸豐富和充實起來。從20、30年代到南北戰(zhàn)爭前夕,是浪漫主義運動的全盛時期,各種不同風格的作家泉涌而出,作品從內(nèi)容到形式都具有鮮明的民族特色。批評家們稱這一時期為美國文學“第一次繁榮”。到了世紀中葉,浪漫主義文學的基調(diào)由樂觀走向疑慮,迫切的社會矛盾,如蓄奴制,又使某些作家采取現(xiàn)實主義的創(chuàng)作方法。
托福閱讀背景材料:火星的那些事兒
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and is commonly referred to as the Red Planet. The rocks, soil and sky have a red or pink hue. The distinct red color was observed by stargazers throughout history. It was given its name by the Romans in honor of their god of war. Other civilizations have had similar names. The ancient Egyptians named the planet Her Descher meaning the red one.
Before space exploration, Mars was considered the best candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers thought they saw straight lines crisscrossing its surface. This led to the popular belief that irrigation canals on the planet had been constructed by intelligent beings. In 1938, when Orson Welles broadcasted a radio drama based on the science fiction classic War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells, enough people believed in the tale of invading Martians to cause a near panic.
Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet’s surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support a bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during colder periods.
In July of 1965, Mariner 4, transmitted 22 close-up pictures of Mars. All that was revealed was a surface containing many craters and naturally occurring channels but no evidence of artificial canals or flowing water. Finally, in July and September 1976, Viking Landers 1 and 2 touched down on the surface of Mars. The three biology experiments aboard the landers discovered unexpected and enigmatic chemical activity in the Martian soil, but provided no clear evidence for the presence of living microorganisms in the soil near the landing sites. According to mission biologists, Mars is self-sterilizing. They believe the combination of solar ultraviolet radiation that saturates the surface, the extreme dryness of the soil and the oxidizing nature of the soil chemistry prevent the formation of living organisms in the Martian soil. The question of life on Mars at some time in the distant past remains open.
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and is commonly referred to as the Red Planet. The rocks, soil and sky have a red or pink hue. The distinct red color was observed by stargazers throughout history. It was given its name by the Romans in honor of their god of war. Other civilizations have had similar names. The ancient Egyptians named the planet Her Descher meaning the red one.
Before space exploration, Mars was considered the best candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers thought they saw straight lines crisscrossing its surface. This led to the popular belief that irrigation canals on the planet had been constructed by intelligent beings. In 1938, when Orson Welles broadcasted a radio drama based on the science fiction classic War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells, enough people believed in the tale of invading Martians to cause a near panic.
Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet’s surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support a bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during colder periods.
In July of 1965, Mariner 4, transmitted 22 close-up pictures of Mars. All that was revealed was a surface containing many craters and naturally occurring channels but no evidence of artificial canals or flowing water. Finally, in July and September 1976, Viking Landers 1 and 2 touched down on the surface of Mars. The three biology experiments aboard the landers discovered unexpected and enigmatic chemical activity in the Martian soil, but provided no clear evidence for the presence of living microorganisms in the soil near the landing sites. According to mission biologists, Mars is self-sterilizing. They believe the combination of solar ultraviolet radiation that saturates the surface, the extreme dryness of the soil and the oxidizing nature of the soil chemistry prevent the formation of living organisms in the Martian soil. The question of life on Mars at some time in the distant past remains open.
Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Martian Trojan asteroid. Mars can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Its apparent magnitude reaches ?2.91,a brightness surpassed only by Venus, the Moon, and the Sun, although most of the time Jupiter will appear brighter to the naked eye than Mars. Mars has an average opposition distance of 78 million km but can come as close as 55.7 million km during a close approach, such as occurred in 2003.
Mars is currently host to three functional orbiting spacecraft: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. On the surface are the two Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity) and several inert landers and rovers, both successful and unsuccessful. The Phoenix lander completed its mission on the surface in 2008. Observations by NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor show evidence that parts of the southern polar ice cap have been receding.
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★ 托福閱讀題型講解