托福閱讀利用因果邏輯詞解題
托福閱讀實(shí)際上有許多做題技巧的，利用因果邏輯詞解題就是其中一種，下面小編給大家分享一下具體操作方法，希望對你們有所幫助。
托福閱讀如何利用因果邏輯詞快速定位解題?
審題
首先通過審題，利用因果邏輯詞能確定是因果類事實(shí)信息題，比如下面的題干：
1. According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
2. According to paragraph 2, sculptors in the Italian Renaissance stopped using cannonballs in bronze statues of horses because
3. According to the passage, which of the following is one of the reasons that tunas are in constant motion?
4. According to paragraph 5, which of the following is a factor responsible for the greater air turbulence in urban environments?
通過why, because, reasons, response for這些詞(短語)，可以確定原文中會有相應(yīng)的因果邏輯句(群)的表述。接下來我們只需要從原文中找出因句果邏輯表述的句(群)，通過分析邏輯承接對象，匹配選項(xiàng)找出正確答案。
實(shí)戰(zhàn)練習(xí)
例1.(tpo23p1q5)Paragraph 3
The burning of fuel, such as by cars, is not the only source of this increased heat. Two other factors contribute to the higher overall temperature in cities. The first is the heat capacity of the materials that constitute the city, which is typically dominated by concrete and asphalt. During the day, heat from the Sun can be conducted into these materials and stored—to be released at night. But in the countryside materials have a significantly lower heat capacity because a vegetative blanket prevents heat from easily flowing into and out of the ground. The second factor is that radiant heat coming into the city from the Sun is trapped in two ways: (1) by a continuing series of reflection among the numerous vertical surfaces that buildings present and (2) by the dust dome, the cloudlike layer of polluted air that most cities produce. Shortwave radiation from the Sun passes through the pollution dome more easily than outgoing longwave radiation does; the latter is absorbed by the gaseous pollutants of the dome and reradiated back to the urban surface.
5. According to paragraph 3, why do materials in the countryside have a lower heat capacity than materials in cities do?
○ The countryside in the Sun is the only important source of heat.
○ Construction materials in the city are not as good at keeping buildings warm as they are in the countryside.
○ In the countryside the solar heat that flows into the ground flows out again quickly.
○ Countryside vegetation prevents heat from being trapped in the ground.
· 分析
通過原文找出因果邏輯詞我們發(fā)現(xiàn)有兩處：
第一處“Two other factors contribute to the higher overall temperature in cities.”
第二處“But in the countryside materials have a significantly lower heat capacity because a vegetative blanket prevents heat from easily flowing into and out of the ground.”
細(xì)節(jié)題陷阱中有一種叫做偷換概念，需要考生們仔細(xì)審題，題干問的是“why do materials in the countryside have a lower heat capacity than materials in cities do?
第一處表達(dá)的是“the higher overall temperature in cities”的原因，顯然不是我們要找的答案;
第二處說的是“in the countryside materials have a significantly lower heat capacity”，很明顯答案在第二處，匹配選項(xiàng)答案是 D.
實(shí)戰(zhàn)練習(xí)
例2.(OG: Lascaux Cave Painting)Paragraph 6
Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images, but their mystique only adds to their importance. Certainly a great art exists, and by its existence reveals that ancient human beings were not without intelligence, skill, and sensitivity.
11. According to paragraph 6, why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?
○ Keeping the paintings a mystery will increase their importance.
○ The artists hid their tools with great intelligence and skill.
○ Too many years have gone by since the images were painted.
○ Answering the questions is not very important to scholars.
· 分析
這道細(xì)節(jié)題本身不難，但是出錯率很高，很多學(xué)生選擇A，為什么?因?yàn)镃選項(xiàng)和原文“but their mystique only adds to their importance.”表達(dá)的意思一樣。
細(xì)節(jié)題選的是符合題干的選項(xiàng)，也即是問什么答什么。比如我問張三有多高?張三說我很帥，張三確實(shí)帥但是不是我要的答案。細(xì)節(jié)題中很具有迷惑性的選項(xiàng)叫“答非所問”，同學(xué)們一定要細(xì)心，回到本題，題干問“why might the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered?”，題干給的是結(jié)果，讓我們找原因，掃讀原文發(fā)現(xiàn)“Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images，其中“that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images”表達(dá)的意思等于題干“the puzzling questions about the paintings never be answered”，很明顯“so much time has passed”就是我們找的答案，確定正確答案選C。
實(shí)戰(zhàn)練習(xí)
例3.(tpo7p1q7) Paragraph 4:
The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination of scores of invertebrate species. Only a few organisms especially tolerant of very salty conditions remained. As evaporation continued, the remaining brine (salt water) became so dense that the calcium sulfate of the hard layer was precipitated. In the central deeper part of the basin, the last of the brine evaporated to precipitate more soluble sodium chloride (salt). Later, under the weight of overlying sediments, this salt flowed plastically upward to form salt domes. Before this happened, however, the Mediterranean was a vast desert 3,000 meters deep. Then, about 5.5 million years ago came the deluge. As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean. Turbulent waters tore into the hardened salt flats, broke them up, and ground them into the pebbles observed in the first sample taken by the Challenger. As the basin was refilled, normal marine organisms returned. Soon layer of oceanic ooze began to accumulate above the old hard layer.
7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following was responsible for the evaporation of the Mediterranean's waters?
○ the movements of earth's crust
○ the accumulation of sediment layers
○ changes in the water level of the Atlantic Ocean
○ changes in earth's temperature
· 分析
通過題干中 “responsible for”確定考察的是因果邏輯，定位到本段第三句話，但句子前后并沒有找到明顯的因果邏輯詞，然后繼續(xù)通讀往下讀，發(fā)現(xiàn)怎么讀都覺得沒有正確答案同時又浪費(fèi)了很多時間。
在這里，給大家補(bǔ)充一個不常見的因果邏輯的另類表達(dá)，即and引導(dǎo)的兩個句子也隱含因果邏輯關(guān)系。比如”He is too old and he can’t walk,”,仔細(xì)體會其中的意思“他太老了and不能行走”，蘊(yùn)含的就是因果邏輯關(guān)系。
回到本題“Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. ”(因?yàn)榈貧み\(yùn)動封閉了海峽，被陸地包圍的地中海也開始蒸發(fā)。)如果大家能識別到這層關(guān)系，很明顯A就是正確選項(xiàng)。
常見因果邏輯詞
下面來總結(jié)一下托福閱讀中常見的因果邏輯詞，希望同學(xué)們能夠熟記巧用。
顯性：because(of), since, for, as, due to, owing to, In that, so(that), therefore, thus, hence, as a result, consequently...
隱性：cause, lead to, make，render, stimulate, spur, spark, push, motivate, prompt, be responsible for..
托福閱讀因果邏輯題如何作答，掌握顯性因果邏輯詞
一、因果邏輯之句子簡化題
一提到因果邏輯，可能大部分考生頓時想到的是句子簡化題。因?yàn)橛邢喈?dāng)比例的句子簡化題中是有邏輯關(guān)系的句子，的確可以先從原句邏輯關(guān)系出發(fā)，先排除明顯邏輯錯誤的選項(xiàng)，剩下的再進(jìn)行核對篩選。但我們在運(yùn)用任何邏輯關(guān)系解題的時候可千萬別忘了句子主干哦。下面我們看幾個例題：
例題 1
The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panaramitee style—a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface.
(A)The oldest rock art sites have simpler motifs than the best known sites of Panaramitee North.
(B)Because motifs primarily associated with the Panaramitee region are common in the oldest sites the term Panaramitee style has become the general term for rock art of this type.
(C)Because the Panaramitee style is so common in the older sites, researchers have described it most extensively.
(D)The motifs carved in the rocky surface of the Panaramitee region make up the oldest form of rock art discovered in Australia.
天啊，這個句子那么長!但提取主干后，句子將變得非常簡單：
The frequency had lead rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panramitee style.
我們發(fā)現(xiàn)這個句子的謂語動詞是 lead to，是個隱性的因果邏輯詞。也就是說，本句話最想表達(dá)的意思是，某個東西的頻繁出現(xiàn)，是研究者們采用 P style 這個術(shù)語的原因。
這時我們來看四個選項(xiàng)，A 選項(xiàng)強(qiáng)調(diào)的是對比關(guān)系，一看就可以排除的炮灰選項(xiàng)。
D 選項(xiàng)的主干是 The motifs make up the oldest form. 跟原句的主干完全不符合，又可排除。
大部分同學(xué)都是糾結(jié) B 和 C，而且還不少同學(xué)認(rèn)為這兩個選項(xiàng)讀完根本就是一個意思, excuse me?!那么接下來我們就得分析下選項(xiàng)中的原因和結(jié)果與原句的原因和結(jié)構(gòu)能否對應(yīng)的上，會不會因果倒置。B 和 C 選項(xiàng)一個最大的區(qū)別，就在于 B 選項(xiàng)中 P style 是句子的結(jié)果，而 C 選項(xiàng)中 P style 出現(xiàn)在了原因部分。原句的 P style 是句子的結(jié)果，所以，正確答案就很明了了，選 B!
咱們再來看另一個例題：
例題 2
However, no group or species can maintain its dominance indefinitely, and when, after over 200 million years, the age of dinosaurs came to a dramatic end about 65 million years ago, mammals began to flourish, evolving from relatively few types of small terrestrial animals into the myriad of diverse species, including bats and whales, that we know today.
(A)The dominance of dinosaurs came to an end 65 million years ago, at which time mammals began to flourish and diversify.
(B)Because no group of species can remain dominant forever, mammals became the dominant group when dinosaurs became extinct.
(C)After being the dominant group for more than 200 million years, the age of dinosaurs came to a dramatic end 65 million years ago.
(D)The diverse group of mammals that we know today, including bats and whales, evolved from small terrestrial forms that had been dominated by dinosaurs.
句首的 However 雖然是個轉(zhuǎn)折邏輯詞，但對于這道題而言是沒有用的，因?yàn)檫@明顯是跟上一句話進(jìn)行轉(zhuǎn)折，而句子簡化題考查的是句內(nèi)邏輯，而不是句間邏輯。這句話是由 and 連接起來的兩個句子，所以不少同學(xué)覺得這兩句話就是并列關(guān)系。
這兩個句子的主干信息為 no group or species can maintain its dominance 和 mammals began to flourish. 那么最完美的正確選項(xiàng)應(yīng)該是肯定要包含這兩個主干信息的。
大部分同學(xué)是在 A 和 B 之間糾結(jié)，覺得 A 呢沒毛病，B 也挺對的，但是多了個 because 不太敢選。A 相對于 B 而言，是屬于信息殘缺的選項(xiàng)，B 選項(xiàng)的信息和原句的信息匹配度更高。
但是 because 如何解釋呢?舉個簡單的例子：
It’s raining outside and I decide to order take-out food.
我們可否理解成因?yàn)橥饷嫦掠炅?，所以我決定訂外賣?這也是說得通的。所以在個別情況下，兩個并列的句子也可以有隱含的因果邏輯關(guān)系，看句意而定。這題便是，兩個句子的核心內(nèi)容可理解成，因?yàn)闆]有任何物種可以一直維持統(tǒng)治地位，所以，后來哺乳動物 flourish 了。再通過閱讀細(xì)節(jié)可發(fā)現(xiàn) mammals began to flourish 正是恐龍滅絕之后。所以這時我們再對比一下 A 和 B，B 選項(xiàng)和原句的還原度是比 A 好的。
二、因果邏輯之細(xì)節(jié)題
因果邏輯其實(shí)無處不在，另一個經(jīng)?？疾齑诉壿嬯P(guān)系的題型是細(xì)節(jié)題。現(xiàn)在我們來看幾個稍微有點(diǎn)沒那么明顯的因果邏輯的考題。
例題 3
The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination of scores of invertebrate species…Soon layer of oceanic ooze began to accumulate above the old hard layer.
Which of the following was responsible for the evaporation of the Mediterranean's waters?
(A)the movements of earth's crust
(B)the accumulation of sediment layers
(C)changes in the water level of the Atlantic Ocean
(D)changes in earth's temperature
本題題干中看到 responsible for，馬上反應(yīng)到考查的是因果邏輯。不少同學(xué)可以快速定位到本段第三句話，但句子中并沒有找到明顯的因果邏輯詞于是不敢判斷答案，于是繼續(xù)往下讀，怎么讀都覺得沒有正確答案同時又浪費(fèi)了很多時間。
其實(shí)這題考的因果邏輯這個考點(diǎn)跟我們上一個句子簡化題的例題是很相似的。兩個句子并列用 and 連接，但是也有隱含的因果邏輯關(guān)系。因?yàn)榈貧み\(yùn)動封閉了海峽，被陸地包圍的地中海也開始蒸發(fā)。如果能識別到這層關(guān)系，則應(yīng)該可以秒選 A 了。
例題 4
Medieval Europe gave new importance to reliable time. The Catholic Church had its seven daily prayers, one of which was at night, requiring an alarm arrangement to waken monks before dawn. And then the new cities and towns, squeezed by their walls, had to know and order time in order to organize collective activity and ration space.
Why did the medieval church need an alarm arrangement ?
(A)The alarm warned the monks of discord or strife in the town.
(B)The church was responsible for regulating working hours and market hours.
(C)The alarm was needed in case fires were not put out each night.
(D)One of the church’s daily rituals occurred during the night.
這是個細(xì)節(jié)題，通過題干可定位到本段第二句話。題目問的是 why，但在原文中不能直接找到 because 或 contribute to 等其他因果邏輯詞。但我們在定位準(zhǔn)確的前提下，仔細(xì)在讀讀第二句話，發(fā)現(xiàn)這個句子有現(xiàn)在分詞做狀語的成分，而 v-ing 是可以做結(jié)果狀語的。那么 requiring an alarm arrangement 的前面信息的同義改寫便是這道題的正確答案。此題正確答案為 D。
本文僅簡單列舉了因果邏輯關(guān)系在閱讀中的幾種考法，它還可以出現(xiàn)在推斷題，句子插入題中，由于篇幅有限就不一一列舉例題了。識別因果邏輯的不同表現(xiàn)形式是可以幫助提高我們的答題效率的一個突破點(diǎn)。回到本文提出的第一個問題，筆者羅列了一些給大家參考一下：
1、顯性因果邏輯詞：
since, because, because of, thus, hence, as a result, result from, responsible for, due to, so that, consequently, account for, explain, factor, outcome……
2、隱性因果邏輯詞：
lead to, stimulate, enable, motivate, encourage, contribute to, trigger, give rise to, induce, affect, damage, impact, depend on, rely on......
學(xué)會掌握托福閱讀中的邏輯詞
關(guān)系詞從邏輯功能的實(shí)現(xiàn)來分類的話，一般可以分為轉(zhuǎn)折(but)、讓步(although)、對比(unlike)、并列(and)、遞進(jìn) (moreover)、舉例(for example)、因果(because)、類比(like)和總結(jié)(in general)這九類。而從所連接信息的方向來分的話，其實(shí)只有兩類，第一類是改變方向，包括轉(zhuǎn)折、讓步和對比;其余剩下的都是第二類，維持方向。比如，如果聽到某人說：“I’d love to go with you，but…”這時我們心里一定都會感覺到這人十有八九去不了了。
而如果他說的是：“I’d love to go with you，and…”那么后面的話至少不會表達(dá)出不去的意愿。也就是說，維持方向的關(guān)系詞連接的前后信息必須是同向的，而改變方向的關(guān)系詞所連接的信息則應(yīng)該是反向的。當(dāng)我們在做題的時候，可能有些句子結(jié)構(gòu)或單詞不理解，如果句子中有關(guān)系詞，那么至少可以幫助我們判斷出句意的方向，而有些題目只需要判斷出方向其實(shí)就能得出答案。下面舉兩個判斷題的例子進(jìn)行說明。
原文：IPhone is gaining popularity， despite its cost。
題目：IPhone is costly。
題目要我們判斷iPhone 是否昂貴，但原文并沒有直接給出其價格的高低?？墒俏覀冏⒁獾皆木渥又泻幸粋€關(guān)系詞despite，它是屬于改變方向的詞，也就是說despite前后連接的這兩個句子方向得相反。前面說iPhone越來越受歡迎，應(yīng)該算是件好事，那么后面說到它的價格，顯然是不能令人滿意的，也就是比較貴，這樣才符合句意的邏輯。因此我們馬上就可以判斷出該題的答案是TRUE。
原文：Baekeland’s invention (Bakelite)， although treated with distain in its early years，went on to enjoy an unparalleled popularity which lasted throughout the first half of thetwentieth century。
題目：Bakelite was immediately welcomed as a practical and versatile material。
這是Test2的12題，題目要我們判斷Bakelite是不是馬上受到歡迎，原文提到它treated with distain inits early years，但麻煩的是可能會有相當(dāng)部分的同學(xué)不認(rèn)識distain 這個詞，這樣似乎就沒辦法判斷出Bakelite在早年被如何對待。但是千萬要注意這個句子有一個關(guān)系詞although，它表示讓步，屬于改變方向，那么由它連接的兩個句子句意得是相反的，這樣我們可以試圖從已知推未知。后面這句話我們從enjoy，popularity可以得出一個信息，就是 Bakelite在20世紀(jì)的前半期一直是受歡迎的，方向是好的，那么前半句treated with distain in its early years必須就要表達(dá)出不好的信息，也就是在前幾年受到不好的對待，這樣才能符合句子邏輯。因此，我們馬上就可以做出判斷，既然在前幾年受到不好的對待，那么Bakelite就不可能馬上受到歡迎了，因此該題的答案是FALSE。這樣，我們在考試時根本就不用具體去理解distain(指名譽(yù)受損)的真正含義，只用判斷方向照樣能夠做對題目。
除了判斷題之外，關(guān)系詞對Summary題也十分有用。Summary是文章或部分段落的縮寫，有時候某些詞同義替換的形式變化比較大，如果只用關(guān)鍵詞去查找，很多時候并不容易定位。但是不管詞怎么變，邏輯關(guān)系一般不變。如果題目中表達(dá)出因果關(guān)系或轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系，那么所找到的原文一般也會表達(dá)出同樣的邏輯關(guān)系。這樣，我們就可以利用上關(guān)系詞來幫助一起定位。
比如Test2的30~31題：In Britain， moreover， scientists worried that English had neither the30________ nor the 31________ to express their ideas。這兩道題用詞去查找并不好定位。但我們也要注意到這兩個空有一個關(guān)系詞詞組“neither…nor…”，它們表示并列，并且是否定的并列。通過這點(diǎn)在原文中很容易就注意到有一個信息是：“First， it lacked the necessary technical vocabulary. Second， itlacked the grammatical resources…”其中，“First…， Second…”表達(dá)出了兩樣事物的并列，而lack(缺乏)這個單詞則表達(dá)出了否定。這樣就比較容易能夠定位到這兩句話并且得出答案是 technicalvocabulary和grammatical resources。
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